Chassepot.

Testament, formed an early sect among the C., while from the Zadikim sprang forth the Hellenistic Samaritans, Essenes, Sadducees, etc. Afterwards, the C., or Pharisees, split into Talmudists, Rabbinists, and Cabalists, some of whom underwent still further subdivision.-The modern C. are not, like those in the times of the Maccabees, marked by any peculiar spiritualistic tendency in religion, but rather by a strict observ ance of certain traditional forms, and a blind subservience to their teachers. Their doctrine was promulgated in the middle of the 18th c. by Israel of Podolia, called BaalShem ("lord of the name," so called because he professed to perform miracles by using the great cabalistic name of the supreme being). Though condemned by the orthodox rabbis, this new teacher had great success in Galicia, and when he died (1760) left 40,000 converts. They are now broken into several petty sects; their religion is utterly formal, and its ceremonies are coarse and noisy.

CHASING, the art of working raised or half-raised figures in gold, silver, bronze, or other metal. It was called cælatura by the Romans; and the term is expressly limited by Quintilian to working in metal. The same art when exercised on wood, ivory, marble, precious stones, or glass, was called sculptura. See CARVING. Iron was sometimes, though rarely used, silver having been always the favorite metal for this purpose. Closely connected with, but still distinguished from C., is the art of stamping with the punch, which the Romans designated by excudere. The Greek toreutike is usually supposed to correspond to C., but the point is by no means free from dispute. The art was known at a very early period, as may be inferred from the shield of Achilles, the ark of Cypselus, and other productions of the kind. Such portions of the colossal statues made by Phidias and Polycletus, as were not of ivory, were produced by the toreutic art. The statue of Minerva was richly adorned in this manner. Besides Phidias and Polycletus, Myron, Mys, and Mentor were celebrated toreutic artists in antiquity, and amongst many moderns the most famous is Benvenuto Cellini (q.v.).

CHASLES, MICHEL, b. 1793; a French mathematician, educated at the Paris polytechnic school. In 1841, he was appointed professor of geometry in that institution. Among numerous essays and books of his productions are: Historical Views of the Origin and Development of Methods in Geometry; History of Arithmetic; and Treatise on Superior Geometry. In 1851, he became a member of the academy, and in 1867, he reported to that body that he was in possession of 27.000 letters and documents of great antiquity and value, among them letters and papers believed to have been written by Dante, Petrarch, Rabelais, Julius Cæsar, Shakespeare, and other persons of renown. Only about 100 of these were genuine, though they completely imposed upon C. and other good judges. The forger, Irene Lucas, was imprisoned two years for forgery, and fraud. C. d. 1880.

CHASLES, VICTOR EUPHEMION PHILARÈTE, 1798-1873; a French writer who traveled in the United States about 1820-23. In 1837, he was director of the Mazarin library, and in 1841, professor of German language and literature in the college of France. He published in 20 vols. Comparative Studies of Literature; wrote tales and books of travel; and prepared editions of classic authors.

CHASSE, music composed in imitation of the chase, and performed chiefly by horns, occasionally combined with other wind instruments. Its movement is in time. The best specimens of this kind of music are an overture by Mehul, and a C. for the pianoforte by Kreutzer.

CHASSE, DAVID HENDRIK, Baron, was b. in Tiei, Mar. 18, 1765, began his military career when but ten years of age, became a lieut. in 1781, and capt. in 1787. After the revolution of that year, C., as siding with the humbled Dutch patriots, took French service; was appointed lieut.col. in 1793; and, two years later, found himself marching towards the Netherlands under the command of Pichegru. He afterwards fought with the French in Germany and Spain, gaining great distinction and the appellation of Général Bayonnette. As lieut.gen, of the Dutch forces in 1815, C. added to his laurels on the field of Waterloo. After the peace he was made governor of Antwerp in 1830, and bravely defended it against the united Belgians and French from Nov. 29 till Dec. 23, 1832, when he was forced to surrender. He died in May, 1849.

CHASSELOUP-LAUBAT, FRANÇOIS DE, Marquis, 1754-1833; a French military engineer who conducted the works at Maestricht in 1794, at Mentz in 1795, and in the Italian campaigns up to 1812; when he was appointed senator. Louis XVIII. made him a marquis.

CHASSELOUP-LAUBAT, JUSTIN NAPOLÉON SAMUEL PROSPER DE, Marquis, 180573: in 1837, a member of the French chamber of deputies and afterwards councilor of state. In 1849, he was again a member, and then and afterwards a supporter of Louis Napoleon, who made him minister of marine. He was for some years the president of the colonial board of Algeria. In 1869, he presided over the council of state until the accession of Ollivier's administration.

CHASSEPOT, a breech-loading rifle invented by Antoine Alphonse Chassepot, b. Mar, 4, 1833; he was attached, in 1858, to the government workshops of St. Thomas at Paris, of which he was made director in 1864; and was afterwards officially attached to the national manufactory of arms at Chatellerault, near Poitiers. He took out patents

III.-23a.

for his invention, and the royalty has brought him a large income. He was decorated with the cross of the legion of honor in 1866. The first model of the C. was exhibited in 1863; but it was not introduced in the French army till after the Prussians had proved the efficiency of the needle-gun in the war of 1866 against Austria; it was used successfully in the Franco-German war of 1870. The C. is an improved needle-gun; the fulminate is in a paper wad which forms the rear of the cartridge envelope; the gas check is a cylindrical ring of vulcanized India rubber, which is pressed against the surface of the chamber when the explosion takes place; the cartridge envelope is of silk or linen, with a caliber of .433 inch. The gun has 4 grooves, and can be fired 12 times a minute at a range of 1200 yards. An improved form of the C. has been recently introduced in France, in which the metallic cartridge can be used. See illus., GUNS, vol. VII., p. 166. fig. 14.

CHASSEURS (Fr., hunters) is a name used for two important forces in the French army. The mounted C. (chasseurs-à-cheval) are a body of light cavalry, designed for service in advance or on the flanks of the army, and correspond most nearly to the light horse of the British service. The name is first used in this sense in 1741, and has been retained while the force it denotes has undergone many alterations in organization and equipment. In 1831, a body of cavalry was raised for service in Africa, mounted on Arab horses, and with a distinct uniform. These have since become famous as the C. d'Afrique. After the reorganization of the French army in 1873, the effective army contained 14 regiments (subsequently increased to 20) of chasseur-a-cheval, besides 4 regiments of C. d'Afrique.-The infantry C. (chasseurs-à-pied) are a light infantry force in many respects corresponding with the cavalry C., and like them intended for detached service (like the rifle corps in the English army). The French are believed to have adopted the idea of such a force of sharpshooters from the Jäger (the German word corresponding to C. or hunters) in the German armies. First used in the thirty years' war, the Jäger derived their name from the fact that they were chiefly drafted from amongst mountaineers and inhabitants of forest regions. They have always been regarded as a valuable contingent in the Prussian and Austrian armies, or even constitute the entire force of light infantry. In France, the equipment of the C. differed little from that of the other infantry; it was not until the formation, in 1838, of the C. de Vincennes, that the experiment of a specially armed force of sharpshooters was fairly tried. The fame of the C. de Vincennes for rapidity and precision of movement, as well as for the accuracy of their fire, soon vindicated the importance of this branch of the infantry; and a present there are 30 battalions of chasseurs-à-pied in the French army.

CHASTELAIN, GEORGES, 1403-75; in the service of Philip the good of Burgundy, at whose request he compiled the Grande Chronique, or history. Of their work, which was to have filled six volumes, only two fragments of importance are known to existthe first extending from 1419 to 1422; the second, with large breaks in the text, from 1461 to 1474.

CHASTELARD, PIERRE BOSCOBEL DE, 1540-63; a French poet, a scion of the house of Bayard. The name of Chastelard is romantically connected with that of Mary queen of Scots. He was a page in the house of marshal Danville, whom he accompanied in his journey to Scotland as escort of Mary in 1561. C. returned to Paris in the marshal's train, but left almost immediately for Scotland bearing letters of recommendation to Mary from Montmorency, and also the "regrets" addressed to the queen by Pierre Ronsard. C.'s master in the art of song. The enthusiastic page fell in love with the queen, who is said to have encouraged his passion. Copies of verses passed between them, and she lost no occasion of showing herself partial to his person and conversation. The young man hid under her bed, where he was found by the maids of honor; but Mary pardoned the offense, and the old familiarity between them was resumed. Again C. was so rash as to violate her privacy; but he was discovered, seized, sentenced, and hanged the next morning. He met his fate consistently, reading, on his way to the scaffold, Ronsard's "Hymn to Death;" and turning at the moment of doom towards Holyrood, addressing to his unseen mistress the famous farewell: "Adieu! thou so fair and so cruel; thou killest me, and yet I cannot cease to love thee!" Another story is that he simply ejaculated “Cruel queen!" emphasizing the words by a threatening gesture.

CHASTELER, JEAN GABRIEL JOSEPH ALBERT, Marquis de, 1763-1825. He was in the Austrian service as a general officer, and served in the war of the Bavarian succession, and in the war against the Turks. He defended Namur against the French, participated in the third partition of Poland, and was sent to Russia to engage the emperor Paul in a coalition against France. In 1799, he was in the Russo-Austrian army, and was seriously wounded before Tolona, Italy. He fought in the Tyrol against Napoleon, but was beaten by Lefebre, May 13, 1809, and was compelled to fly to Hungary. When the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom was established, he was made gov. ernor of Venice.

CHASTELLUX, FRANÇOIS JEAN, Marquis de, 1734-88; a French soldier and author, distinguished in the seven years' war in Germany, and in the army of Rochambeau in

the American revolution, where he held the rank of maj.gen. His chief works are De la Félicité Publique; Voyages in North America; and a Discourse on the Advantages Resulting to Europe from the Discovery of America.

CHASTE-TREE. See VITEX.

CHASUBLE (Lat. casula, casubula, and cassibula), the uppermost garment worn by priests in the Roman Catholic church, when robed for the celebration of the mass. It was called also "the vestment," and under that name seems occasionally to have been used in the English church after the reformation. Originally it covered the priest from head to foot, like a little house, whence some writers think it had its name of casula. In more recent times, at least, it was made of velvet. It was of an elliptical shape, like a vesica piscis, with a hole in the middle for the head; it had no sleeves. When put on,

it showed two peaks, one hanging down before; another, on which a cross was embroidered, hanging down behind. According to Hildebert, the C. signified good works; according to Alcuin, charity; according to another writer, the unity of the faith. Durand makes one peak the symbol of love to God, the other peak the symbol of love to our neighbor. In France, the press or wardrobe in which chasubles were kept was called the chasublier.

CHAT, Saxi cola, a genus of small birds of the very numerous family sylviada (q.v.), distinguished by a bill slightly depressed, and widened at the base. They have rather longer legs than most of the family. They are lively birds, flitting about with incessant and rapid motion in pursuit of the insects on which they chiefly feed. They are found in Europe, Asia, Africa, and New Holland. Three species are British-the stonechat, whinchat, and wheatear.-The yellow-breasted C. of the United States (icteria polyglotta) is a larger bird, and belongs to the family turdida or merulida.

CHATARD, FRANCIS SILAS, D.D. See page 894.

CHÂTEAU, CHÂTEL, or CASTEL, from the Lat. castellum, a fort, enters as a component part into many names of places in France.

CHATEAUBRIAND, FRANÇOIS AUGUSTE, Viscomte de, one of the most distinguished of French authors, was b. Sept. 4, 1769, at St. Malo, in Bretagne, and received his carly education in the college at Rennes. While traveling in North America in 1790, he accidentally read in an English newspaper the account of the flight and arrest of Louis XVI. He immediately returned to France, intending to fight against the republic; but being seriously wounded at the siege of Thionville, in Sept., 1792, he escaped to England, where he lived in such poverty that he was compelled to make translations for the book-sellers, and to give lessons in French. In 1797, he published his first political essay, Sur les Révolutions Anciennes et Modernes, considérées dans leurs Rapports avec la Révolution Française (2 vols., London), a republican and sceptical work, the outcome of hardship, poverty, and sorrow. His skepticism soon vanished, but republican impulses continued to flash out at intervals during the whole of his strangely-checkered, inexplicable, and inconsistent career. In 1800, C. returned to Paris, and wrote for the Mercure de France. In this journal, he first printed his tale of Atala (1801), with a preface lauding the first consul, Bonaparte. Its success was remarkable, but nothing to the miraculous enthusiasm excited by his Génie du Christianisme (1802), a work exactly suited to the jaded skepticism of the age, and also in accordance with the policy of the first consul, who was then concluding the concordat with the pope, and wished to make the Roman Catholic priesthood subservient to his measures. Bonaparte, therefore, appointed C. secretary to the embassy in Rome, and, in 1803, sent him as ambassador to the little republic of Valais. On the execution of the duke d'Enghien, Mar. 21. 1804, C. resigned in disgust. In 1806, he commenced his pilgrimage to the Holy Land, visited Greece, Palestine, Alexandria, and Carthage, and returned through Spain to France in May, 1807. From this period to the fall of Napoleon, he lived privately, publishing only two works of any value-Les Martyrs and the Itinéraire de Paris à Jérusalem. In 1814, his eloquent brochure, De Bonaparte et des Bourbons, excited such attention, that Louis XVIII. declared it was worth an army of 100,000 men in favor of legitimacy.

After the battle of Waterloo, C. returned to Paris, where he was made peer_and minister of state. Gradually his monarchical zeal subsided, and, in his address, De la Monarchie selon la Charte, delivered in the chamber of peers, he gave expression to such liberal tendencies as offended the king, who erased his name from the list of his counselors. Soon, however, he appeared again as an ultraroyalist; and at the baptism of the infant duke de Bordeaux, C. presented to the duchess of Berry a flask filled with water from the Jordan. In 1822, he was appointed ambassador-extraordinary to the British court, but was rather rudely dismissed from office in 1824.

In 1826, C. prepared the first edition of his collected works, for the copyright of which the publisher gave the large sum of 600,000 francs, of which C. returned 100,000. During the days of July, 1830, he was staying with his friend Mme. Récamier at Dieppe; but as soon as he heard tidings of the revolution, he hastened to Paris. He refused to take the oath of fealty to Louis Philippe. This political crotchetiness, which always rendered it impossible to know beforehand what course of conduct C. would adopt, is perhaps best explained by the following passage from his De la Restauration et de la Monarchie Elective (Paris, 1831): "I am a Bourbonist in honor, a monarchist an

grounds of rational conviction; but in natural character and disposition, I am still a republican." In 1832, he revised a new edition of his works, and, after visiting the court of the expelled Bourbons, devoted his attention to the preparation of his memoirs, intended to be published posthumously (Mémoires d'outre Tombe), though considerable extracts were printed during his lifetime. He also found leisure to write several other works. He died July 4, 1848.

C. wrote with warmth, energy, and a rich supply of imagery. Many of his descrip tive passages are excellent, but his ideas want depth and coherency.-Marin, Histoire de la Vie et des Ouvrages de M. de Chateaubriand (2 vols., Paris, 1832).

CHÂTEAUDUN, a t. of France, in the department of Eure-et-Loir, is situated on the Loir, a tributary of the Loire, about 26 m. s.s.w. of Chartres. The streets are straight and well built, and an old castle, with an enormous tower, overlooks the town. C. has manufactures of blankets and leather. Pop. '76, 6,061.

CHÂTEAUGAY, a s. w. co. in the province of Quebec, Canada, on the St. Lawrence, drained by the Chateaugay, the Noire, and other rivers; 250 sq.m.; pop. '81, 14,393. It is generally level, and the soil is fertile. Chief town, St. Martine.

CHATEAU-GONTIER, a t. of France, in the department of Mayenne, situated on the river of that name, here crossed by a stone bridge, 18 m. s.s.e. of Laval. C. has some good houses, but the streets are not well laid out. It has linen and woolen manufactures. Pop. '81, 7,107.

CHÂTEAUGUAY, SIEUR DE. See LE MOYNE.

CHATEAUNEUF DE RANDON, a village of France, in the department of Lozère, 12 m. n.e. of Mende. A pretty historical incident connected with the place, which was formerly fortified, makes it interesting. In 1380, the fortress, then held by the English, was besieged by the troops of Charles V., under the command of the gallant Du Guesclin. The English governor, sore pressed, promised to yield in fifteen days if no succor arrived. In the meantime, Du Guesclin died, and nis successor was appointed, who, at the expiry of the fifteen days, summoned the governor to surrender. He refused to yield up the keys to any but Du Guesclin; and when informed of his death, marched out, and on bended knee laid the keys and his sword on the dead hero's bier. Pop. 72, 393.

CHÂTEAUROUX, a t. of France in the department of Indre, situated on a rising ground in the midst of an extensive plain, on the left bank of the river Indre, 166 m. s. of Paris by railway. The town, which was formerly dirty and ill built, has been greatly improved within the last quarter of a century. C. does not possess much interest for the traveler. It is a busy place, with extensive woolen factories, besides manufactures of cotton, hosiery, yarn, hats, paper, parchment, hardware, leather, etc. Some of the best iron in France is found in the vicinity. The town owes its origin to a castle built here in the 10th century. Pop. "76, 16,980.

CHÂTEAU-THIERRY, a t. in the department of Aisne, France, on the right bank of the Marne; pop. '72, 5,347. It has a commercial college, a public library, and manufactories of linen, cotton, leather, and earthenware. There is a marble statue of La Fontaine, the fabulist. The town takes its name from a castle said to have been built by Charles Martel for Thierry IV., the ruins of which are on an adjacent hill. The position of Château-Thierry has subjected it to many disasters. It was captured by the English in 1421, by Charles V. in 1545, by the Spanish in 1591; pillaged in the Froude wars in 1652, and suffered severely in the Napoleonic campaign of 1814.

CHÂTEL, FERDINAND TOUSSAINT FRANÇOIS, Abbé, 1795-1857; ordained as a priest in 1818, serving as vicar to several French towns, and as chaplain in the army. In 1831, he founded a new sect in whose doctrines Christ was to be venerated only as a perfectly good man, and the confessional, fasting, and vows of chastity and celibacy were to be omitted. The authorities interfered in 1842 and closed his place of worship, but in 1848 he appeared again as an especial champion of women's rights. His pubiic meetings were suppressed in 1850, and he passed his later years in the duties of a metropolitan postmaster.

CHÂTELET, the name of two old fortresses of Paris, believed by some to have been built in the time of Julius Cæsar. The grand C. was restored by Louis IX. and remodeled by other kings. It was demolished in 1802. It was the residence of counts of Paris, and became an important seat of the judiciary, as well as a prison. This fortress stood on the right bank of the Seine where is now the w. part of the place de Châtelet. The petit C. was on the other bank near the present place du Petit Pont. It was demolished in 1782. In earlier times it was one of the gates of the city.

CHÂTELET-LOMONT, GABRIELLE EMILIE, Marquise du, a very learned French woman, notorious for her intimacy with Voltaire, was born at Paris, 17th Dec., 1706 At an early period she displayed a great aptitude for the acquisition of knowledge. She studied Latin and Italian with her father, the baron de Breteuil, and subsequently betook herself with zeal to mathematics and the physical sciences. Distinguished alike for her beauty and talent, she soon found a host of suitors for her hand. Her choice fell on the marquis du Châtelet-Lomont, but her marriage did not hinder her from forming a tendresse

for Voltaire, who came to reside with her at Cirey, a château on the borders of Cham pagne and Lorraine, belonging to her husband. Here they studied, loved, quarreled, and loved again, for several years. In 1747, however, poor Madame C. became "not insensible to the brilliant qualities" of a certain M. Saint-Lambert, a capt. of the Lorraine guards; and the result was, that the philosopher had to make room for the soldier, and content himself for the future with being the "devoted and indulgent friend" of his former mistress. This new intimacy became fatal to Madame Châtelet. She died at Luneville, 10th Sept., 1749, a few days after having given birth to a child. Her first writing was a treatise on the philosophy of Leibnitz. She also translated the Principia of Newton into French, accompanying it with algebraic elucidations. It did not, however, appear till 1756, some years after her death. Her correspondence with Voltaire is interesting; but the fact that a woman so highly gifted as Madame C., and possessing so many amiable qualities, should never have dreamed that there was anything wrong in her liaisons, proves with terrible conclusiveness how corrupt was that philosophic society which, in the 18th c., professed to explode superstition and enlighten France and the world.

CHÂTELLERAULT, a t. of France, in the department of Vienne, situated on the river of that name, 18 m. n.n.e. of Poitiers. A handsome stone bridge, with a massive castellated gateway, built by Sully, at one end, connects it with a suburb on the other side of the river. C., which is an ill-built, mean looking town, is one of the chief seats of the manufacture of cutlery in France, and since 1820 has had a national manufactory of swords and bayonets. Its river-port makes it the entrepôt for the produce of an extensive district. The duke of Hamilton derives his title of duke of Châtellerault from this place. Pop. '81, 14,864.

CHATHAM, a co. in s.e. Georgia, on the ocean and the South Carolina border; 358 sq.m.; pop. '80, 44,995-27,535 colored. It is level and swampy, with fertile soil near the rivers. Rice, sweet potatoes, corn, and cotton are the chief productions. The Savannah, Alabama, and Gulf railroad intersects it. Co. seat, Savannah.

CHATHAM, a co. in central North Carolina, reached by the Chatham railroad, and drained by the Rocky, New Hope, Deep, and Haw rivers; 700 sq.m.; pop. '80, 23,456— 7955 colored. Chief productions, wheat, corn, oats, tobacco, butter, and coal. Co. seat, Pittsboro.

CHATHAM, N. J. See page 894.

CHATHAM, a t. in Barnstable co., Mass., on the s.e. extremity of cape Cod, near the Cape Cod railroad; pop. '80, 2252. Fishing is the business of the greater portion of the inhabitants. There are three important lighthouses in the township.

CHATHAM (Saxon, Ceteham or Cattham, understood to signify the "village of cottages"), a parliamentary borough, river-port, fortified town, and naval arsenal, in the co. of Kent, situated on the right bank of the Medway, at the upper part of its estuary, 30 m. e.s.e. of London. Much of C. is ill built and irregular. The High street is 11 m. long, parallel to the river, and swarms with soldiers and Jews. The refuse timber of the dock-yard is much used in building the house-walls. C. owes its importance to its naval and military establishments situated at Brompton village (on a height half a mile n. of C.), and on the Medway estuary. The C. fortified lines are the frequent scenes of field-operations, imitation battles, and grand reviews. Pop. '81, 46,806. The borough, which sends one member to parliament, is governed by a head-constable under the magistrates of Rochester. The Romans seem to have once had a cemetery here. Traces of Roman villas have been found, with Roman bricks, tiles, coins, and weapons. The dock-yard was founded by Elizabeth before the threatened invasion of the Spanish Armada. In 1662, it was removed to its present site. In 1667, the Dutch, under De Ruyter, sailed up the estuary of the Medway, and, in spite of the fire from the castle, destroyed much shipping and stores.

In a military point of view, the lines of detached forts connected with C. constitute a fortification of greath strength; and the whole is regarded as a flank defense for London in the event of an invader seeking to march on the capital from the s. coast. The place is also defended by some strong forts on the Medway. In and near C. are fort Pitt, a military hospital and strong fort; barracks for infantry, marines, artillery, and engineers; a park of artillery; and magazines, store-houses, and depots on a large scale.

In a naval sense, C. is one of the principal royal ship-building establishments in the kingdom, and a visit to it never fails to impress the stranger with a sense of the naval power of England. The dock-yard is nearly 2 m. in length, containing several buildingslips, and wet docks sufficiently capacious for the largest ships; and the whole is traversed in every direction by a tramway for locomotives, with a gauge of 18 inches. One peculiar establishment in this dock-yard is a metal mill, which supplies all the royal dock-yards with copper sheets, copper bolts, and other articles in copper and mixed metal. The saw-mills at C. are so extensive that it is said that, if fully employed, they could cut up timber enough for all the dock-yards. A duplicate of Brunel's block-making machinery is kept at C., ready to supplement the operations of that at Portsmouth. The dock-yard is under the control of a captain-superintendent and other officers, whose annual salaries vary from £700 to £200 each. Under them are clerks