Cemetery

prises about 200 acres, and more than 16,000 monuments erected to the memory of nearly all the great men of France of the present century. Twice this C. and the neighboring heights have been the scene of desperate fighting. In 1814, during the attack on Paris by the allies, it was stormed by a Russian column; and in 1871 the communists made their last stand among these tombs, where 900 of them were killed, 200 being buried in quicklime in one huge grave, and 700 in another. Paris has also the cemeteries of Mont Parnasse and Montmartre, besides many smaller burial-grounds. In 1874, a very large C. was laid out 16 m. n. of Paris, covering nearly 1300 acres. In France, every city and town is required by law to provide a burial-ground beyond its barriers, properly laid out and planted, and each interment must take place in a separate grave. This law does not apply to Paris, however. There the dead are buried 40 or 50 at a time in the fosses communes, the poor being interred gratuitously, and a charge of 20 francs being made in all other cases. The fosse when full is left undisturbed for 5 years; then all the crosses and other memorials are removed, the level of the ground is raised 4 or 5 ft. by fresh earth, and interments begin again. For 50 francs a grave can be leased for 10 years; but when permanent monuments are desired the ground must be purchased in fee.

In English cities, about 1840, the people began to discuss the dangers to public health arising from the condition of the grave-yards surrounding, and the vaults within and underneath, the great churches. In London, these receptacles were literally crammed with coffins, and the surrounding air was infected to a dangerous degree. Coffins were piled upon each other until they came within a few inches of the surface of the ground, and then the ground was raised from time to time until its level came nearly up to the lower windows of the church. To make room for new burials, old bones were thrown out, and this led to systematic robbing of graves for the sake of the coffin plates and the pretty ornaments sometimes buried with the bodies. The result of this action and discussion was an entire change in the system. Burials within the limits of cities and villages were prohibited, and as a necessity rural cemeteries were founded. The chief cemeteries of London at present are: Kensal Green, on the Harrow road, 24 m. from Paddington; Highgate, on a slope of Highgate hill; Abney Park; the Norwood and Nunhead cemeteries, on the s.; the west London C., at Brompton; Ilford and Leystone cemeteries in Essex; the Victoria and Tower Hamlets cemeteries in e. London; while further from the city were the cemeteries of Woking and Colney Hatch.

The dead-houses (Leichenhauser) of Frankfort and Munich form a remarkable feature of the burial customs of those cities. The objects of the founders were to obviate the remotest danger of premature interment, and to provide a respectable place for the reception of the dead, in order to remove the bodies from the often confined dwellings of the friends. At Frankfort, the dead-house is at the entrance to the cemetery. It consists of a warder's room, where an attendant is always on duty; on each side are five rooms, well ventilated, and kept at even temperature, and each one is furnished with a bier, on which a corpse can be laid. On one of the fingers of a corpse is placed a ring, to which is attached a light cord, connecting with a bell which hangs outside of the attendant's room. Bodies deposited here are inspected at regular intervals by a medical officer, and the warden is always on the watch for the ringing of the bell. The importance of this care was once proved at Frankfort by the revival of a child. The attendants are required to receive and treat the dead with all respect, and no interment is permitted until signs of decomposition appear. The relations are then notified, and a funeral is held. Similar mortuaries have been established in many English towns.

Of the cemeteries still in use in southern Europe, the catacombs of Sicily are the most remarkable. In one of these, near Palermo, under an old Capuchin monastery, there are four subterranean corridors, in which more than 2,000 corpses are ranged in niches in the wall, many of them shrunk into the most grotesque attitudes, or hanging with pendent heads or limbs from their receptacles. As a preparation for its niche, the body is desiccated in an oven, and then dressed as if in life and put in its place in the wall. At one end of this C. there is an altar, strangely ornamented with a mosaic of human skulls and bones.

Among nations in the east cemeteries have been in use from the earliest times. In China the high grounds near Macao and Canton are crowded with tombs, many of them in the form of small tumuli with a low encircling wall, like the ringed barrows of western Europe. But the most picturesque of all cemeteries are those of the Turks. From them it was, perhaps, that the first idea of the modern C., with its ornamental plantations, was derived. Around Constantinople the cemeteries form vast tracts of cypress woods, under whose branches stand thousands of tombstones. A grave is never reopened; a new resting-place is given to every one, and so the dead now occupy a wider territory than that which is covered by the homes of the living. The Turks believe that until the body is buried the soul is in a state of discomfort, and the funeral, therefore, takes place as soon as possible after death. No coffin is used; the body is laid in the grave, a few boards are placed around it, and then the earth is shoveled in, care being taken to leave a small opening extending from the head of the corpse to the surface of the ground, an opening not unfrequently enlarged by dogs and other beasts which plunder the graves. A tombstone of white marble is then erected, surmounted by a carved turban, in case of a man, and ornamented by a palm branch in low relief, if the grave be that of a woman.

Censors.

The turban by its varying form indicates not only the rank of the sleeper below, but also the period of his death, for the fashion of the Turkish head-dress is always changing. A cypress is usually planted beside the grave, its odor being supposed to neutralize any noxious exhalations from the ground, and thus, every C. is a forest, where by day hundreds of turtle-doves are on the wing or perching on the trees, and where bats and owls swarm undisturbed at night. These cemeteries are a favorite resort for Turkish women, some of whom are always to be seen praying beside the narrow openings that lead down into a parent's, a husband's, or a brother's grave. The cemeteries of the Armenians abound in bas-reliefs, which show the manner of the death of the person beneath, and on these singular tombstones are frequent representations of men being decapitated or hanging on a gibbet.

America closely followed England in the sanitary reform of burial-places, and many years ago burial within certain limits of cities was prohibited except in special cases, such as the use of private vaults in church-yards. The earliest of the great cemeteries in the United States was Mount Auburn, near Boston, covering 125 acres, lovely by nature, and most elaborately adorned.

Laurel Hill C., in Philadelphia, was opened in 1836. It is on the Schuylkill river, about 4 m. n. of the center of the city, and is part of a region of romantic beauty, abounding in gentle declivities, picturesque lawns, rugged ascents, rocky ravines, and flowery dells. A carriage drive, along the river front, connects Fairmount park and the Wissahickon; thus bringing the ever-varying activity of the living into association with the tranquil resting-places of the dead. Since the first purchase of ground, several larger tracts have been added to it; while, under the management of various associations, other portions of the beautiful vicinity have been, in a similar manner, consecrated and adorned. This was followed by Greenwood C., the first and one of the greatest popular burial-places for New York and Brooklyn. The company was chartered in 1838. The grounds, which comprise 474 acres, occupy the hills and valleys on the e. side of the bay of New York, about 3 m. s. of the city hall in Brooklyn. The situation is one of the finest in all the region. From the higher points of the Č. the eye takes in the two cities of New York and Brooklyn, the bay, half a dozen cities in New Jersey, the far-off Palisades, the broad lower bay, the highlands near Sandy Hook, Coney island, the rich garden lands of Kings county, and a grand view of the Atlantic ocean. This C. has five entrances; nearly 20 m. of stone-bedded avenues, and 17 m. of concrete paths. Water for drinking and irrigation is supplied from the city works to nearly 40 hydrants. There are eight lakes of varying dimensions, and four ornamental fountains. The grounds are drained by 17 m. of subterranean sewer pipes. The first interment was on the 5th of Sept., 1840. Among the edifices and monuments of note are: the entrance buildings, the receiving tomb, the shelter house, and the following monuments and statues: to Horace Greeley, statue of a printer setting type; to John Matthews, a sarcophagus with marble effigy; of the Brown brothers, representing the loss of the steamship Arctic and the loss of five members of the family; on Highwood hill, a tribute to Samuel B. Morse, inventor of the telegraph; the Firemen's monument, a fireman rescuing a child; monument to Henry Howard, ex-chief of the New York fire department; chapel monument to Mary M. Danser, noted for charitable bequests; marble temple of A. S. Scribner, of fine Italian marble, containing a figure of Hope, under a marble canopy, supported on eight pillars, and on the sides, in bas-relief, illustrations from the life of Christ, from birth to ascension; monument to Thomas J. Read, a granite figure of Faith Clasping the Cross; statue of John Correja, a sea-captain taking an observation with the sextant (put up by himself many years before his death); the monument to Charlotte Canda, who was killed on her 17th birthday by falling from her carriage. (This is an elaborate Gothic temple, and was for many years the great attraction of the place; more people have visited this structure, probably, than any other of the points of interest.) The Soldiers' monument, in honor of those who fell in the union cause during the rebellion, with four life-size statues representing the different branches of the service; the Pilots' monument, to Thomas Freeborn, who lost his life in trying to save the ship John Minturn, in 1846; the statuary group of James Gordon Bennett, founder of the New York Herald, of the finest Carrara marble, representing a life-sized female figure, kneeling on a cushion, in an attitude of prayer, commending to the Almighty Giver her child, held suspended by an angelic figure; the colossal bronze statue of De Witt Clinton; monument to Louis Bonard, who was one of the founders of the society for the prevention of cruelty to animals. This C. is not a stock corporation, but a public trust, managed by trustees chosen by the lot owners. The average annual number of bodies interred is from 5000 to 6000.

CENCI, BEATRICE, called "the beautiful parricide,” was the daughter of Francesco Cenci, a wealthy Roman nobleman. According to Muratori (Annales, lib. x.), Francesco was twice married, Beatrice being his daughter by the first wife. After his second marriage, he treated the children of his first wife in a revolting manner, and was even accused of hiring bandits to murder two of his sons on their return from Spain. The beauty of Beatrice inspired him with the horrible and incestuous desire to possess her person; with mingled lust and hate, he persecuted her from day to day, until circum

stances enabled him to consummate his brutality. The unfortunate girl besought the help of her relatives, and of pope Clement VII. (Aldobrandini), but did not receive it; whereupon, in company with her step-mother, and her brother, Giacomo, she planned and executed the murder of her unnatural parent. The crime was discovered, and both she and Giacomo were put to the torture; Giacomo confessed, but Beatrice persisted in the delaration that she was innocent. All, however, were condemned, and put to death, August, 1599, in spite of efforts made in their behalf. Such is Muratori's narrative. Others allege that Beatrice was the innocent victim of an infernal plot. The results of Bertolotti's investigations (Francesco Cenci e la sua Famiglia, 1877), based on original documents and contemporary notices, go far to deprive the story of the Cenci tragedy of the romantic elements on which Shelley's powerful tragedy mainly turns. Francesco, it would appear, was profligate, but no monster; Beatrice at the time she murdered her father, was not 16 but 21 years of age, was far from beautiful, and probably had already a tarnished moral reputation. And Bertolotti is further convinced that the sweet and mournful countenance which forms one of the treasures of the Barberini palace in Rome, is not only not the portrait of Beatrice, but was not even painted by Guido, to whom it has long been unhesitatingly attributed.

CENEDA, now officially called VITTORIO, a city of northern Italy, province of Treviso, 36 m. n. of Venice. Pop. 11,000. It is an episcopal see, has a very handsome modern cathedral and a fine monolithic fountain. Under the republic of Venice it was rich, and famed for its manufactures of woolen cloth, silk, and paper. C. is very ancient, dating from the time of the Romans, but now it is a decayed city.

CENIS, MONT, or MONTE CENISIO, a mountain-pass of the Alps, between Savoy and Piedmont, forming part of the water-shed between the valleys of the Doire and the Arc. The culminating point of the pass reaches an elevation of 6,775 ft. above the sea. Schist, limestone, and gypsum, in altenate beds, compose the strata of the mountain, the vegetation of which is rich in the rarer kinds of Alpine plants. Over the pass a road was constructed (1803-10) by the chevalier Fabbroni, under Napoleon's orders, at an expense of £300,000. This is the safest, and most frequented road across the Alps. Near the pass, a railway tunnel, 7 m. long, was finished in 1870. For detail see

TUNNEL.

CENIS, MONT (ante), the site of some remarkable railroad building within the last 15 years. In 1865, an English engineer obtained permission from the Italian and French governments to lay a railway on the line of Napoleon's carriage road over the mountains. The road was built in the ordinary way with the addition of a third rail midway between the outer ones, and raised nearly a foot higher. This third rail was strongly gripped by the driving wheels, by which means the trains could safely traverse very sharp curves and descend grades as steep as 1 ft. in 12. On the French side the rise to the summit in 64 m. of road was 4,460 feet. Then there was a stretch of 5 m. nearly level, and after that the descent to Susa on the Italian side, a distance of 20 m. over curves so numerous and so sharp that the view changed almost every minute, trains descended by the momentum of weight, the speed being regulated by brakes. This road was superseded by the one now in use, which runs through the great tunnel. (See TUNNEL.) CEN'OBITES. See MONACHISM. CENO'MYCE.

See REINDEER MOSS.

CENO TAPH (Gr. kenotafion, from kenos, empty, and tafos, a tomb), a monument which does not contain the remains of the deceased. They were originally erected_for those whose bones could not be found, e.g., for those who had perished at sea. Latterly, the name was applied to tombs built by a man during his lifetime, for himself and the members of his family.

CENSER (Fr. encensoir, from Lat. incendo, to burn), a vase, or other sacred vessel, used for burning perfumes. See INCENSE. Censers were much used in the Hebrew service of the temple, but their form is not accurately ascertained, and it is probable that they varied in this respect, according to the occasions on which they were used. The C., called also a thurible (Lat. thuribulum, from thus, frankincense), is used in the Roman Catholic church at mass, vespers and other offices. It is suspended by chains, which are held in the hand, and is tossed in the air, so as to throw the smoke of the incense in all directions. It varies very much in form.

CENSORI'NUS, a chronologist and grammarian of the 3d c., known by a work called De Die Natali, in which he treated of man's generations, his natal hour, and the influence that the stars and genii exercise over his fate. It was by some work of his on chronology that certain important dates have been ascertained.

CENSORS, the name of two Roman officers of state. The office was established by Servius Tullius, the fifth king of Rome. After the expulsion of the kings, it was held by the consuls, special magistrates not being appointed till 443 B.C. It continued to be filled by patricians till 351 B.C., when C. Marcius Rutilus, a plebeian, was elected. Twelve years later, it was enacted that one of the C. (there were always two) must be a plebeian. In 131 B.C., both C. for the first time were plebeians. The C. were

elected in the comitia centuriata, presided over by a consul. The term of office at first lasted five years, but was shortly afterwards limited to 18 months. The censorship was regarded as the highest dignity in the state, except the dictatorship. It was a sacred and irresponsible magistracy, whose powers were vast and undefined, and whose decisions were received with solemn reverence. The duties of the C. were threefold. 1. The taking of the census, or register of the citizens and of their property. 2. The regimen morum (regulation of morals). 3. The administration of the finances of the state. The taking of the census (Lat. censeo, to value, to take an account of) was originally their sole function (hence their name), and was held in the campus martius, in a building called villa publica. The regimen morum was the most dreaded and absolute of their powers. It grew naturally out of the exercise of the previous duty, which compelled them to exclude unworthy persons from the lists of citizens. Gradually, the superintendence of the C. extended from the public to the private life of citizens. They could inflict disgrace (ignominia) on any one whose conduct did not square with their notions of rectitude or duty. For instance, if a man neglected the cultivation of his fields, or carried on a disreputable trade, or refused to marry, or treated his family either too kindly or too harshly, or was extravagant, or guilty of bribery, cowardice, etc., he might be degraded, according to his rank, or otherwise punished. The adminis tration of the finances of the state included the regulation of the tributum, or propertytax; of the vectigalia, such as the tithes paid for the public lands, salt-works, mines, customs, etc., which were usually leased out to speculators for five years; the preparation of the state budget, etc.-See Rovers, De Censorum apud Romanos Auctoritate et Eristi matione (Utrecht, 1825).

CEN'SORSHIP OF THE PRESS, the term generally applied to the arrangements for regulating what may be printed, in countries where the press is not free. The simplest form of Č. is when a public officer-the censor, or licenser, as he is sometimes calledreads over the MS. to be printed, and, after striking out any objectionable passages, certifies that the work may be printed. Thence it is common in old books to see the word imprimatur-let it be printed-followed by one or more signatures. Though it has its name from an analogy with the functions of the Roman censor, the C. did not come into operation until the invention of printing. It was common to all European countries, Great Britain included. The C. was established by act of parliament in 1662, 13 Char. II. c. 33: "An act for preventing the frequent abuses in printing seditious, treasonable, and unlicensed books and pamphlets, and for regulating of printing and printing-presses." This was a temporary act, renewed from time to time; and its renewal was refused in 1693, owing to a quarrel between the house of commons and the licenser. Since that time there has been, generally speaking, no restriction in Gt. Britain on what any man may publish; and he is merely responsible to the law, if in his publication he should commit any public or private wrong. See LIBEL, Law of; see also PRESS, FREEDOM OF THE; BOOK-TRADE; and COPYRIGHT.

CENSUS means, in Gt. Britain, the periodical counting of the people. It is a Latin word applied by the Romans to one of the functions of their censors (q. v.). They had to enumerate the people, but only for immediate purposes of taxation, so that no accounts of the results of such enumerations has been preserved. The idea of ascertaining the numbers of the people, and the proportions in which they are divided according to sex, age, profession, rank, and the like, as statistical information, is of late origin. The first C. of Britain was taken in the first year of the present c.-1801. From that time it has been taken at each period of ten years. An attempt, but a rather unsuccess ful one, was made to take the statistics of Ireland in 1811. Ten years after, the attempt was repeated, but the accuracy of the bare enumeration it furnished was doubtful That of 1831, which was an improvement, was corrected three years after, in order that it might form the basis of a new system of education. The four subsequent enumerations have been very trustworthy, and have furnished besides valuable statistics regarding the agricultural condition of the country. The system of registration under a regis trar-general, established in England in 1836, has given considerable assistance by supplying a staff for carrying out the enumeration, and also by affording the means of checking the census. A similar registration system was extended to Scotland in 1854, of which the C. of 1861 and 1881 have had the advantage. A C. must be taken for the whole empire simultaneously, otherwise it cannot be accurate. The practice is for the enumerating officer in each petty district to leave a schedule at each house, which he receives filled up, aiding, when necessary, in the filling up. The C. of 1851 was taken for the night of the 31st March. This C. supplied important, but not altogether satisfactory information, as to the educational and ecclesiastical condition of the country, elements of which the latter has been left out in 1861 and 1871. The C. of 1861 was taken for the night of Sunday, 7th April; that of 1881 for the night of Sunday, 2d April, a schedule being left in each house on the Saturday, and called for on Monday. The schedule of 1881 contained compartments for "particulars of the name, sex, age, rank, profession or occupation, condition, relation to head of family, and birthplace of every living person" who passed the night of Sunday in the house; whether any was blind, deaf, dumb, imbecile, or lunatic; and how many between the ages of 6 and 13 were receiving education. Most civilized nations take a C. at regular intervals-France,

every five years (1876, '81, etc.); Belgium, every ten years (1866, 76, etc.), with calcu lated estimate in 1873; Austria, every ten years, the last in 1890; the United States, the same, the last in 1890; in Germany, the last two censuses were taken in 1880 and 1885. The first C. for India was taken between 1867 and 1872.

CENSUS (ante). The tenth C. of the United States was taken in June, 1880. Up to 1860 our decennial progress in population and material wealth had been uniformly rapid and wonderful. The war of the rebellion then interfered, and both directly and indirectly tended to arrest that progress-directly in the destruction, through war and disease, of more than three quarters of a million of men in the beginning of life, when, in the natural course of events, they would have largely increased the population; and indirectly in checking the flood of immigration, a flood that had been bringing us half a million inhabitants in a single year. The regularity of progress from 1790 to 1860 is very remarkable. The percentage of increase in each decade is here shown:

So, for the 70 years up to 1860 the population grew at an average rate of 34 per cent per annum, dividing the whole period into periods of ten years each. Without the war the population of the United States in 1870 would have been 42,600,000; in 1880, by the same ratio, it would have been upward of 57,000,000. Per centage of increase, 1870-80, 23.04. The numbering of the people, though on one special occasion forbidden by the highest power, is an ancient custom. Moses numbered the Israelites in the wilderness, and, in later times, Joshua and David followed his example. The Chinese tell of a C. of their people taken 2,042 years before the birth of Christ. In Japan an enumeration was made about 1,900 years ago. Solon ordered the C. of Athens to be taken, especially with reference to classes of the people and taxable property. Servius Tullius, sixth king of Rome, ordered a C., when every citizen had to appear on the field of Mars and declare on oath his name and residence, the number and names of his children, and the value of his property. Failing to do this, his property might be confiscated and himself scourged and sold for a slave. Augustus enlarged the scope and improved the manner of taking the census. In the 16th c. the church began to record births, marriages, and deaths, and from this practice gradually grew up the modern C., though there does not appear to have been any exact popular C. made until after the beginning of the 18th century.

This

Russia, then almost a barbarous country, appears to have led other nations in C. taking. Partial enumerations were made in 1700, 1704-5, and 1710. In 1719, Peter the great sent a commission into all the provinces to make a general census. commission took account of the number of peasants, mechanics, domestics, and men unemployed. Women were not taken into account at all at the commencement, but they were recognized before the work closed, and in some districts were partially enumerated. In 1722, the C. distinguished the insane and infirm without means of subsistence, and the czar ordered that a C. should be taken every twentieth year. In 1802, a central bureau of statistics was organized, reorganized in 1852, and again in 1858. This bureau is charged with the taking of the C., which now includes much the same information as that obtained in the United States. Prussian enumerations were begun under Frederick William I., and improved by his successor. From 1748 to 1800, the C. was taken annually, except when prevented by war. In 1805, the central bureau of statistics was established. In 1834, a triennial C. was ordered. The schedules for questioning were very full, and the enumeration was to be made some one day in December. The first C. of the German empire was taken on the 1st of Dec., 1871. Austria first took a C. in 1754, and kept it up triennially until 1857, when it was enacted that the enumeration should be made every sixth year. In Sweden, as early As 1686, there was a law requiring the clergy to record marriages, legitimate and illegiti mate births, deaths, persons removed from or settled in parishes, and all the population, arranged by place of habitation and households. Such information was first published in 1746. A statistical bureau was established in 1857, to collate and publish C. and other statistical information. Norway has kept up a decennial C. since 1815, and the work is usually thoroughly done. In Spain, enumerations were made in 1787, 1798, 1857, and 1860, and, by calculation, in 1867. The work is done by government officials in one night. Denmark had a C. once in five years, from 1840 to 1860; now it is decennial, the last enumeration being on the 1st of Feb., 1890. The first and only C. of Portugal was made Jan. 1, 1864, and extended only to the number of the population. Switzerland began enumerations about 1750. Her C. is now decennial. Belgium doubtless leads all nations in the fullness and accuracy of her statistics, although her C. is taken but once in ten years. The last was in 1886. The Netherlands C. is decennial. The last was taken Dec. 1, 1880. Italy has an enumeration once in ten years, the last Dec. 31, 1881. Greece counts up irregularly. From 1836 to 1845, a C. was made every year; then in 1848, 1853, 1856, 1861, 1868, and 1870. Turkey has never taken a C. except for conscription or taxation. The first C.