acy, transubstantiation, the invocation of saints, the veneration of relics, image-worship, and the celibacy of the clergy; and that they kept their simple worship and pure doctrines undefiled to the last, and were suppressed only by force and fraud, when the Roman Catholic church triumphed over their older and better creed. For all this, it is now clearly seen that there is no foundation. There is no reason to suppose that the C. differed in any material point of faith, discipline, or ritual from the other clergy of the British islands and western Christendom. Their name was their only peculiarity.

The best account of the Irish C. is given in a dissertation by the Rev. Dr. Reeves, in the Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy for 1860. The best account of the Scottish C. is given in Mr. Grub's Ecclesiastical History of Scotland, vol. i. pp. 226-43 (Aberd. 1861). The opinions formerly held regarding the Scottish C. will be found in Selden's preface to the Decem Historia Anglicana Scriptores, reprinted in his Opera, vol. ii. pp. 1129-46; sir J. Dalrymple's Collections concerning the Scottish History (Edin. 1705); and the late Rev. Dr. Jamieson's Historical Account of the Ancient Culdees (Edin. 1811). The opinions of these writers are controverted in bishop Lloyd's Historical Account of Church Government, chap. vii.; Goodall's Preliminary Dissertation and bishop Russell's Supplement, prefixed to Keith's Catalogue of Scottish Bishops (Edin. 1824); Pinkerton's Inquiry into the Early History of Scotland, vol. ii. pp. 270-73 (edit. 1814); and Chalmers's Caledonia, vol. i. pp. 434-39 (Lond. 1807). On the subject of the C. generally, reference may be made to Lanigan's Ecclesiastical History of Ireland, vol. iv.; to the dissertation by J. van Hecke in the Acta Sanctorum Octobris, vol. viii.; and to Skene's Celtic Scotland, vol. ii.

CUL-DE-SAC, a street or alley with an opening at only one end, easy therefore of entrance, but not for exit; thence any close, confined, uncomfortable place.

CUL'ENBORG, CUL'EMBORG, or KUIL'ENBURG, a t. of the Netherlands, situated on the left bank of the river Leck, 12 m. n. w. of Tiel. C. has three divisions, of which the inner town is the oldest and most important. It has a Reformed, a Lutheran, a Roman Catholic church, a synagogue, and a fine orphan-house. It has steamboat communication, and is a station of the railway from Utrecht to 's Hertogenbosch. C. has several factories. In olden times, the "Dominion of Culenborg" formed a county; and its independence, both of the Roman empire and the states of Holland, secured it the singular privilege of offering an asylum to fugitives from Holland for debt. Pop. '80, 6,725. CULIACAN', a t. of the Mexican confederation, stands on a river of its own name, which, flowing towards the s. w., enters the gulf of California near its mouth. It occupies a fertile tract in the department of Sinaloa, being about 90 m. to the s.e. of the city so called. It is estimated to contain 7,000 inhabitants.

CULILAWAN BARK, also called CLOVE BARK, a valuable aromatic bark, the product of the cinnamomum culilawan, a tree of the same genus with the cinnamon (q.v.) tree, growing in the Molucca islands. It comes to market in pieces of various length, almost flat, thick, fibrous, covered with a white epidermis, reddish-yellow inside, and has an odor resembling that of nutmeg and cloves, and a pungent taste. It is useful in cases of indigestion, diarrhea, etc.—Another variety of C. B. is believed to be the produce of cinnamomum xanthoneurum; and a very similar bark, called SINTOC BARK, is obtained from C. sintoc.

CULLEN, a royal, parliamentary, and municipal burgh and seaport in the n. of Banffshire, 12 m. w.n. w. of Banff. It is built on the w. slope of an eminence overlooking the sea, and at the mouth of the Cullen Burn. Pop. '81, 2,033. A third of the inhabitants of the town are engaged in the cod, ling, haddock, skate, herring, and salmon fisheries. C. contributes with Elgin, Banff, Peterhead, Inverury, and Kintore in returning one member to parliament. The chief exports are cured fish, oats, potatoes. Some linen is made. The marquis of Montrose burned C. in 1645.

CULLEN, PAUL, D.D., Cardinal, b. in Ireland, 1803; educated in Rome; made cardinal, 1866. He is the first man of Irish birth who has been made a cardinal since the reformation. He d. 1878.

CULLEN, WILLIAM, a well-known physician of the last century, and one of the most celebrated professors of medicine in the universities of Edinburgh and Glasgow, was born at Hamilton, in Lanarkshire, on the 15th day of April, 1710. His father was factor to the duke of Hamilton, and was possessed of a little landed property in the parish of Bothwell; he appears to have brought up two of his sons to the learned professions, and to have himself received a legal education. William C. received the first part of his education at the grammar-school of Hamilton, and afterwards began his medical studies in Glasgow by an apprenticeship, and by attending literary classes in the university. At this time (about 1727), it does not appear that there was any systematic medical teaching in Glasgow university, though the medical school of Edinburgh was just rising to the height of its fame, under the auspices of the first Monro. C.'s master in the art, however, Mr. John Paisley, was a liberal and enlightened man, having a valu able library, of which the pupil may be presumed to have made good use. In 1729, having completed for the time his medical education, he was appointed surgeon to a merchant-ship, trading to the West Indies; and from this time till 1734, he was actively engaged in learning his profession practically in various situations, but without accept

ing any permanent responsibility. He next spent two additional winter-sessions in Edinburgh in the regular study of medicine, and was one of the founders of that important students' association-since called the royal medical society—the object of which was, and is, the advancement of the medical knowledge of the members by periodical discussions on subjects of interest connected with medical study. In 1736, he commenced practice at Hamilton, and very soon was largely employed, having secured from the first the influence and friendship of the duke of Hamilton and of other persons of distinction. Soon after, he became acquainted with William Hunter, afterwards the celebrated anatomist and obstetric professor, and brother of the still more celebrated John Hunter. See HUNTER, JOHN and WILLIAM. The three years passed by Hunter under Cullen's roof formed the beginning of a life-long friendship, although after Hunter went to London, it is probable that they never again met. In 1740, C. took the degree of doctor of medicine in the university of Glasgow; in 1741, he entered into partnership with a surgeon, with the view of confining himself to a physician's practice; in 1744, he responded to the invitation of a number of families in Glasgow, and took a house in that city, an object which it is probable he had in view some years before, but which he was prevented from carrying out by the friendship and liberal patronage of the duke of Hamilton, who died in 1743. Various circumstances indicate that during the seven years passed in practice in Hamilton, C. was diligently preparing, not only for the practice, but also for the teaching, of his profession; and accordingly, he had no sooner settled in Glasgow, than we find him engaged in giving a course of lectures, in regard to which his correspondence with William Hunter sufficiently shows that it was successful, and deserved success. Up to this period, though professorships of medicine, and of anatomy with botany, existed in the university, no lectures were delivered in either medicine or botany; and it seems certain that to C. that university owes the real commencement of its medical school; for in one or two years succeeding 1746, he made arrangements with the several professors to lecture on the theory and practice of physic, on botany and the materia medica, and finally on chemistry, being assisted in these last departments by Mr. John Carrick, who also acted as assistant to the professor of anatomy. In botany, C. seems to have lectured in Latin, but in the other departments be adopted the English language as the vehicle of expression, an innovation of great importance, which permitted him to adopt a more familiar style of lecturing than had hitherto been in use. One of his original hearers records that "in the physic class, Dr. Cullen never read lectures, but only used notes; in the chemistry, he sometimes read, but very seldom."*

He was supported by the university by votes amounting to £136 for the chemical laboratory, and £20 annually for keeping it in repair. As a chemist, he does not appear to have made any notable discovery; but he imbued the minds of his pupils with large and liberal views of a science then very imperfectly studied, and was beyond all doubt the means of raising up the great reputation of Dr. Black, by turning his thoughts to the subject of latent heat, which he prosecuted so successfully by a series of conclusive and most original experiments. In 1751, after somewhat prolonged negotiations, C. was placed, through the influence of the duke of Argyle, for the first time in his rightful position as a professor in the university of Glasgow, in room of Dr. Johnstone, the professor of medicine. But by this time it had begun to be apparent that an opening both for teaching and practice existed in Edinburgh, and lord Kames, whose knowledge both of general science and of Edinburgh society placed him in a favorable position for judg ing of the chances of success, made several attempts to attract the rising and ambitious Glasgow professor to the metropolis; in which design, however, he was not successful till four years afterwards, when C. was elected by the town-council joint professor of chemistry with Dr. Plummer, who had fallen into bad health, and who died about a year afterwards. In 1757, his ever-active mind found a new direction in adding to his duties as professor of chemistry the teaching of clinical medicine in the royal infirmary, a duty up to this period performed by Dr. Rutherford only, the professor of medicine and botany. The clear-sightedness and practical sagacity which he brought to this work at once fixed his position as a teacher and as a physician. Probably, also, the fact of his having to give bedside instruction at this period opposed itself to the natural tendency of his mind to give everything a systematic form, and weeded his method of practice of an immense quantity of the scholastic rubbish which appears prominently in all the medical learning of that age. He became a decided favorite with the students, and not less so with his patients; and in 1760, was applied to by the former to undertake the lectures on materia medica, in consequence of the death of Dr. Alston during the session. This duty he performed so well, that his lectures were surreptitiously printed from the notes of a pupil, and had a considerable circulation. On the resignation of Dr. Rutherford, it was reasonably expected that C. would have been transferred from the chemical chair to that of the practice of physic, for which he had shown so decided an aptitude; but personal views interfered, and Dr. John Gregory was appointed to the practical chair. În 1766, C. was, however, placed in the chair of institutes of medicine, vacant by the death of Dr. Whytt; and Black, now the greatest chemical discoverer of the age, was brought to Edinburgh from Glasgow to fill C.'s place as professor of chem

* Thomson's Life of Cullen, vol. i. p. 25.

Culna.

istry. In 1773, C. was at last transferred to the chair of the practice of physic, the duties of which he had for some years performed alternately with Dr. Gregory, the latter taking part in return alternately with C. in the lectures on the theory or institutes of medicine.

"I

The rest of Dr. C.'s biography is simply a record of continued success as a teacher and a practitioner. His popularity with his students, and even his scientific reputation at one time threatened to be seriously diminished by the brief but noisy episode of the Brunonian system (see BROWN, JOHN, M.D.). In 1778, C. became the proprietor of Ormiston hill, a small but prettily situated property about 8 m. w. of Edinburgh, where he passed as much time as his professional duties would allow in improving his little estate, and renewing his long-dormant knowledge of, and love for, rural affairs. have got upon my hobby," he writes to a friend; "my amusement is a little farm, and a little pleasure-ground. I have done a great deal, but it is all leveling work; other people cannot know what earth has been moved, but I have had some amusement in the turning of every shovelful." It was a becoming end to a life of usefulness. He had here the leisure and the enjoyment of life which were required to wean him from the too exclusive pursuit of his profession; and while his love of science never chilled, and was even made subservient to the adornment of the retreat of his old age, he was somewhat withdrawn from the heat and the strife of the world into the purer air of domestic retirement. C. died on the 5th Feb., 1790, having nearly completed his 79th year, and having been actively engaged in teaching and consulting practice till within a few months of his death. His most important works are the First Lines of the Practice of Physic (Edin. 1777); Synopsis Nosologia Methodica, 1785; Institutions of Medicine, 1777; A Treatise of the Materia Medica, 1789. Their characteristics are great clearness of expression, with remarkable soundness of judgment and common sense, rather than striking originality, or a rapid advance into new regions of thought. But he was eminently the man for his time, which was distracted and confused by a host of baseless theories, and by many of those "false facts" which C. himself said were more numer ous than even false theories. Amid this farrago, he sought his way towards the truth with remarkable impartiality, and infinite candor as regards the opinions of others. His fame as one of the greatest of teachers has survived the memory of his professional success, and even the credit of his far-famed systematic nosology. His writings have been collected in 2 vols., 8vo., by Dr. John Thomson (Edin. 1827), by whom also a life was commenced, the first volume of which was published in 1832. This biography was continued by his son, and finally completed in a second volume by Dr. Craigie, in 1859.

CULLE'RA, a fortified maritime t. of Spain, on the Mediterranean, at the mouth of the Jucar, in the province, and 23 m. s.s.e. of the town, of Valencia. C. is irregularly built, but clean; has an old castle, several churches, schools, convents, a hospital, extensive barracks, etc. From its position, it is considered a place of great military importance. It stands on the outskirts of an agricultural district, "an Eden of fertility," and the inhabitants are mostly engaged in agriculture, cattle-rearing, fishing, and the production of oil and wine. A considerable coasting-trade is carried on with France and the Mediterranean. Pop. 11,500.

CULLMAN: co., Ala. See page 897.

CULLO DEN, or DRUMMOS'SIE MOOR, a desolate level table-land, now partly culti vated, in the n.e. of Inverness-shire, 6 m. e.n.e. of Inverness, near the Moray firth. It is memorable as the scene of the total defeat, on 16th April, 1746, of the Highland army under prince Charles Stuart by the royal troops under the duke of Cumberland, and the extinction of the hopes of the house of Stuart to regain the English crown. Green mounds and a monumental cairn mark the spots where the battle was fiercest, and where many of the slain lie buried.

CULLOM, SHELBY M. See page 897.

CULLUM, GEORGE W.; b. N. Y., 1809; graduate of West Point, 1833. He retired from active service in 1874, holding the rank of maj.gen.

CULM, in botany, the peculiar cylindrical hollow and jointed stem of grasses (q.v.). CULM, a popular name of anthracite (q.v.), in very general use in some parts of England, and occurring in many scientific works. In some districts of South Wales, the Č. obtained from the pits in a broken and crumbling condition, is used as fuel, being made up into balls, with one third of its bulk of wet viscid clay. It burns without flame, producing a strong and steady heat, well adapted for cooking.

CULMINATION, an astronomical term, signifying the passage of a star across the meridian. The star is then at the highest point (culmen) of its course: hence the name. The sun culminates at midday, or 12 o'clock, apparent solar time-which seldom agrees exactly with mean time, as shown by a watch or clock. The full moon culminates at midnight. The time of C. of a fixed star is always exactly midway between the times of its rising and setting; in the case of the sun, moon, and planets, it is only nearly so.

CUL'NA, a t. of India, in the British district of Burdwan, presidency of Bengal, 47 m. n. of Calcutta, on the right bank of the Hooghly. The town contains a vast number of temples, is a station of the free church (Scotland) mission, and has a flourishing English school. It is a place of considerable trade, rice, grain, silk, and cotton being

Cultivation.

the chief articles of commerce; and of late years, the traffic has greatly increased, in consequence of its being found a convenient station for steamers plying between Calcutta and the upper provinces. C., in 1881, had 29,336 inhabitants, the chief part of whom are from different parts of the country carrying on trade here.

CUL'PA (Lat. fault, crime, blame). By the Roman jurists, C. was recognized as existing in three degrees, C. lata, gross carelessness or omission, which was regarded as equivalent to dole; C. levis, that degree of negligence into which a person attentive to his own affairs may be supposed occasionally to fall; and C. levissima, that still more slight degree of negligence which is in some degree incident to human nature, and may be fallen into by even the most prudent and sharp-sighted. Where a contract contemplates the mutual benefit of both parties, the middle degree of diligence is all that either is bound to exercise, and the neglect of this is C. levis, or C. simply. Where one party only is benefited, he is bound to exercise the utmost diligence, the neglect of which is Č. levissima, whilst the other party has done enough if he avoids C. lata, or gross and excessive negligence. These distinctions of the Roman law have been adopted by the law of Scotland.

CULPABLE HOMICIDE. See HOMICIDE and MURDER.

CULPEPER, a co. in n. Virginia, between the Rapidan and Rappahannock rivers, intersected by the Orange, Alexandria, and Manassas railroad; 673 sq.m.; pop. '80, 13,408-6,623 colored. Agriculture is the main business. Co. seat, Fairfax.

CULPEPER, JOHN, an early English emigrant to the Carolinas who led an incipient rebellion, was tried for treason, but was acquitted because there had been really no government to rebel against. In 1680, he laid out on paper the plan of the city of Charleston.

CULPEPER, or COLEPEPPER, THOMAS, Lord. d. 1688; one of the grantees and a governor of the colony of Virginia. He administered the office chiefly for his own gain, being shrewd and unscrupulous to the last degree.

CULPRIT, in English law, is a prisoner accused, but not tried. After trial, if not acquitted, he becomes a convict.

CULROSS', a parliamentary and municipal burgh and seaport in a detached part of Perthshire, on the n. shore of the firth of Forth, 6 m. w. of Dunfermline, and 22 n.n.w. of Edinburgh. It is a place of great antiquity. As early as the 6th c., it was the seat of the monastery of St. Serf, who afterwards became the patron saint of the town, where his yearly festival was kept till about the close of the 18th century. Engus the Keldee, an Irish martyrologist, who wrote about 800 A.D., describes it as lying in Strathearn between the Ochils and the sea of Gindan, i.e., the firth of Forth. It stands on the face of a hill rising from the shore. The parish church preserves some remains of the conventual church of a Cistercian abbey, founded in 1217, on a commanding site in the higher part of the town. Close beside it is the fine old residence of C. abbey, founded by the Bruces of Carnock and Kinloss about the end of the 16th c., remodeled about the middle of the 17th c., and towards the end of the 18th occupied by the father of the late lord Dundonald, who here made experiments in extracting tar from coal for preserving ships' bottoms, and gas for illuminating purposes. At the e. end of the town are the ruins of a chapel, built about the beginning of the 16th c., in honor of St. Kentigern or Mungo, who is said to have been born here about the year 500, and to have been here educated by St. Serf. C. has various charitable institutions, and carries on some damask weaving. In the 16th c. it was famous for the manufacture of salt and the export of coal. Its once extensive shipping traffic is now gone. Pop. '81,373. It returns one member to parliament with Sterling, Dunfermline, Inverkeithing and South Queensferry. From James VI.'s time, up till the beginning of the century, coal-mines were worked here far under, the firth of Forth.

CULTIVATED PLANTS-those plants which, either for their usefulness or their beauty, have been to some considerable extent, and not merely as objects of curiosity, cultivated by man-belong to natural orders widely different from each other, and scat tered throughout almost all parts of the vegetable kingdom. The prevalence of particular qualities in particular natural orders, indeed, causes us to find groups of C. P. in some of them, as the cerealia or corn-plants among grasses; but with these are botanically associated other species-usually far more numerous-to which no great value has ever been attached, or which are objects of interest to the botanist alone. It may be that, in some instances, the original preference of certain species was accidental, and that their present superiority over certain others is merely owing to the improvements effected by cultivation; but we are no more entitled to assume that this has been ordinarily the case, than that man has in his selection exhausted, or nearly exhausted, the resources of nature. Some plants are known to have been cultivated from the most remote his toric ages; some have but recently become the objects of human care, which yet are deservedly esteemed; and, in some instances-e.g., sea-kale—these have not been introduced from regions newly explored, but are natives of the very countries which have been the seats of ancient civilization. Probably, in the earliest ages, plants useful for food alone were cultivated, and of these only a few kinds, as is still the case among savage tribes; it may perhaps be doubted whether plants yielding fiber for clothing and

cordage, or plants from which alcoholic beverages or narcotics could be procured, were most likely next to engage attention.-Of C. P., plants affording articles of human food are certainly the most important, as well as the most numerous class. See FOOD. Next to these may be ranked plants yielding fiber (q.v.). Other important classes of C. P. are those yelding alcoholic beverages, all of which, however, are also to be ranked among the plants yielding food (see FERMENTED LIQUORS); those yielding tea, coffee, cocoa, and other similar beverages, containing caffeine (q.v.), or some analogous principle; those yielding narcotics (q.v.), as tobacco and opium, some of which are and some are not cultivated also for other purposes; those yielding dye-stuffs (q.v.); those yielding medicines (see OFFICINAL PLANTS); those yielding fixed oils (see OILS), some of which are to be reckoned among plants valuable for food, on account of the use of their oils as articles of food, whilst they are also valuable on other accounts; those yielding fodder (q.v.) for cattle; those yielding timber (see TIMBER TREES); those employed for hedges (q.v.), etc. There are also many miscellaneous useful products of plants, and useful purposes to which they are applicable. Among the former are resins, turpentines, essential oils, gum caoutchouc, gutta-percha, bark for tanning, etc.; among the latter, the thatching of roofs, basket-making, and the supply of food necessary for useful insects, which leads to the cultivation of the white mulberry as the food of the silkworm, and of the cochineal cactus or nopal as the food of the cochineal insect. Many plants highly valued for their usefulness are still scarcely or not at all cultivated: this is the case particularly with many that yield medicines, for which the whole demand is not too great to be easily supplied by the plants growing wild, and with timber trees, the plantation of which only takes place in countries of very advanced civilization. The number of plants cultivated for their usefulness is continually increasing, as well as of those cultivated for their beauty. The cultivation of flowers and ornamental shrubs and trees, although unquestionably less ancient than that of some of the plants most necessary for the supply of urgent wants, nevertheless dates from a remote antiquity, and has always existed in every country entitled in any measure to the credit of civilization. Some C. P. have from a very early period been very widely diffused, as has particularly been the case with some of the corn-plants; but others have been confined to particular regions through no necessity of climatic adaptation, but rather from want of intercourse among nations. Thus, some of the finest ornaments of our greenhouses and gardens, recently introduced into Europe, have been diligently cultivated from time immemorial in China and Japan, in which countries also many useful plants are cultivated still almost unknown in other parts of the world. The cultivation of useful aquatic plants is practiced in China to a degree unapproached in any other country.

The changes produced by cultivation present an interesting and difficult subject to the student of vegetable physiology. Increase of luxuriance and size is a result which might have been expected from abundant nutriment and favorable circumstances of growth; but the determination of the strength of the plant in its vegetation to particular parts, and their greater proportionate increase, is a more remarkable phenomenon, although of common occurrence, as is also the considerable modification of juices and qualities. To these effects of cultivation, perpetuated in the progeny of the plants, and increased from one generation to another, we owe many of the most useful varieties of cultivated plants. Our cabbages, turnips, carrots, etc., differ very much from the wild plants of the same species; there is little, for example, that is eatable or nutritious in the root of a wild turnip, and the acridity occasionally to be observed even in cultivation exists in it to a much greater degree. Wild celery is poisonous, or almost so. How far the effects of cultivation can be extended, is a question not yet decided in general, nor with reference to particular species. See De Candolle's Origin of Cultivated Plants.

CULTIVATION. The term includes all operations for preparing the soil for those crops which man specially selects for his use. The spade, the hoe, and the plow, have been the primary implements of C. among all nations as far back as their civilization can be traced. All these effect much the same end. By their means the soil is stirred and inverted, which keeps under the vegetation that is supplanted, and loosens the soil to admit of the roots of the sown plants to run through it. The harrow or rake, on the other hand, is employed to smooth the surface and cover the seed. To allow of the C. of the crops when they are growing, in many cases the seeds are planted or sown in rows. Cereals, for instance, are, with this view, often sown with a drill in rows from 6 to 9 in. apart; and the narrow rows are either cultivated by the hand or horse hoe. Again, turnips, potatoes, and other green crops, are sown at wider intervals, from 24 to 30 in., and are cultivated during their growth by horse-hoes of various descriptions. The implements used in C. will be best treated under their special names, and under the different crops the peculiarities of their cultivation will be considered. A few general principles, however, which ought to be kept in view in the C. of all crops, may be here stated.

The soil, in the first place, should be as completely inverted as possible, since it is an important object to smother or bury the surface-plants, and permit them to decay within the soil and yield food for the plants to be sown. In the second place, it should be rendered as loose and comminuted as possible; for earth in this state both allows an