Co-operation.

in the hands of other practitioners. His annual income, which in the fifth year of his practice only amounted to £100, had in 1813 risen to the enormous sum of £21,000, perhaps the largest ever received by a surgeon. In 1817, he tried what has been considered the boldest experiment ever attempted in surgery, the tying of the aorta, which did not prove successful; and it has since been tried with no better result. In 1820, C. removed a steatomatous tumor from the head of George IV., who marked his appreciation of the operation by conferring a baronetcy upon C. some six months after. In 1822, he was elected one of the court of examiners of the college of surgeons, and in 1827, president. In the following year he received the appointment of sergeant surgeon to the king, and in 1830 was made vice-president of the royal society. Other honors flowed in upon him. He was made a member of the French institute, and corresponding member of the royal academy of sciences, a D.C.L. of Oxford, and an LL.D. of Edinburgh. Ever busy with his pen as with his knife, he, in 1822, published a work on Dislocations and Fractures, which threw much new light on the subjects discussed, and also suggested improved methods of treatment. His treatise on the Anatomy and Diseases of the Breast (1829–40) was characterized by all the care, research, and originality which distinguished his previous works; so likewise was his Anatomy of the Thymus Gland, 1832. C. died 12th Feb., 1841. A colossal statue to his memory is erected in St. Paul's cathedral, London. As a teacher, C. possessed the faculty of communicating knowledge in a manner at once easy and agreeable; and he elevated medical surgery, the operations of which before his time have been described as a series of "frightful alternatives, or hazardous compromises," into a science.

COOPER, EDWARD. See page 891.

COOPER, HENRY. See page 891.

COOPER, JAMES FENIMORE, an American novelist, was b. at Burlington, N. J., U. S., Sept. 15, 1789. Having received his early education from a private tutor, he, at the age of 13, passed to Yale college, and after three years' study there, entered the American navy as a midshipman. He remained six years at sea, gathering the experience of which he was afterwards to make such good use in his novels. On his retirement from the sea in 1811, he married; and the next ten years of his life were spent in a quiet, domestic fashion. In 1821, appeared his first work, Precaution, a novel that afforded no indication whatever of the talent he subsequently exhibited. In the following year, however, he published The Spy, a tale which at once secured for him a place in the first rank of novelists. By not a few critics he was even elevated to a higher pedestal than that which Scott occupied; but time sobered their judgment, while it still left him a deservedly high position as a writer of fiction. In quick succession followed The Pioneers; The Pilot, The Last of the Mohicans; The Red Rover; and The Prairie; with which C.'s genius culminated; for though between this date (1827) and 1850 he wrote about 26 different works, none of them equaled in merit those we have mentioned. The secret of C.'s success as a novelist lies in his graphic descriptive powers, and his thorough knowledge of the matters he describes-whether it be the boundless ocean or the broad prairietogether with an attentive study of character. Not a little of his popularity in America, however, must be attributed to his nationality; and in Europe a good deal of it was owing to the freshness of the scenes in which his stories were laid. About 1827, C. visited Europe, where he remained several years; the fruits of his sojourn, besides novels, being some ten volumes of sketches of European society, which added nothing to his reputation. Many of his works have been translated into most modern languages, and one- -The Spy-can be read in Persian. C. died at Cooperstown, in the state of New York, 14th Sept., 1851.

COOPER, PETER, 1791-1883; b. New York; manufacturer and philanthropist. He assisted his father in his successive occupations of hatter, brewer, and brick-maker; gained such education as his limited means allowed, and from 1808-12 was apprenticed to a carriage-builder. He invented a machine for shearing cloth, which was used during the war of 1812-15; then manufactured cabinet-ware; was for a time a grocer, and finally established a glue and isinglass factory on Long Island, continuing the business for more than 50 years and acquiring great wealth. In 1828 he built large iron-works in Baltimore, and afterwards a rolling and wire-mill in New York, and blast furnaces in Pennsylvania. In 1830 he designed and built the first locomotive engine used in America, and about 1845 made at Trenton the first rolled iron beams for building purposes. He was among the earliest to promote telegraphic communication in the U. S., and for 18 years was pres. of the New York, Newfoundland and London telegraph co. He invented a method of propelling canal-boats by an endless chain. He was prominent in the affairs of his native city, and aided in establishing the old public school society. In 1876 he received the independent nomination for president. His great work was the erection and endowment of the Cooper union (q.v.). See Life, by Mrs. Carter (1889).

COOPER, SAMUEL, D.D., 1725-83; a native of Boston, and graduate of Harvard. When but twenty years of age, he succeeded his father as pastor of Brattle street church, where he officiated 37 years. He was active in the revolution, sustaining the cause of the people in sermons and pamphlets, and to him Franklin sent the Hutchinson letters. He was one of the founders of the American academy of arts and sciences.

COOPER, THOMAS, b. 1805; an English chartist, in youth a shoemaker, and selfeducated so as to become a schoolmaster at the age of 23. He was the leader of the

Leicester chartists in 1841, lectured during the riots, and was found guilty of conspiracy and sedition, and sent to prison for two years. While in jail, he wrote an epic poem, The Purgatory of Suicide, and a series of stories, entitled Wise Sarcs and Modern Instances. Some time afterwards he wrote papers on The Condition of the People; later still, Triumphs of Perseverance and Triumphs of Enterprise. In 1848, he was lecturing; in 1849, editing a radical penny paper; in 1850, conducting a free-thinking publication. Near the close of 1855, he gave up skepticism, and has since almost continually lec. tured in support of Christianity. His poetical works were published in 1878.

COOPER, THOMAS, LL.D., 1759-1840; a native of London, educated at Oxford; studied medicine and law, and was admitted to the bar. He visited France in the interest of the English democratic clubs, and became conspicuous among the Girondists, for which he was taken to task by Burke in a speech in the house of commons. Cooper wrote a virulent reply, but its circulation was prohibited by the government. Coming to the United States, he started law practice in Philadelphia, and soon mixed in politics in opposition to the administration of John Adams, on whom he made a gross attack in a newspaper. Under the alien and sedition laws, he was tried for libel, convicted, and sentenced to a fine and six months' imprisonment. As soon as the democratic party came into power, he was rewarded by the appointment of judge, but he soon became so odious to the party that he was removed. În later years, he was professor of chemistry in Dickinson college, in Pennsylvania university, and South Carolina college in Columbia, of which he became president. His latest work was a revision of the statutes of South Carolina. Among his publications are Information Concerning America; An English Version of the Institutes of Justinian; Lectures on the Elements of Political Economy, etc.

COOPER, THOMAS SIDNEY, b. 1803; an English painter, who began as scene-painter in a theater at the age of 17. After much work and travel, he married and settled in Brussels, where his talents, especially in painting animals, were appreciated. The rev、 olution involved him in trouble, and he returned to England, where he has enjoyed com. plete success. He presented his gallery of art to Canterbury City, 1882.

COOPERAGE, the art of making vessels of pieces of wood bound together by hoops. It is a very ancient art, such vessels having been in use among the Romans at the period of the Christian era. The upright pieces forming the sides of a barrel, or cask, or other cooper's work, are called staves; and, as casks are usually larger in the middle than at the top and bottom, this swelling, called the belly or boulge, is formed by skillfully shaping each stave so that it shall form part of the required double conoid, and that, when all are built and hooped together, their edges shall coincide perfectly; for this purpose, each stave is made broadest in the middle, and narrowed down in a curved line towards each end. A skillrul cooper can work this curve so accurately that no further fitting or alteration shall be needed when the staves are put together. The staves are made to meet at their inner edges, and by driving the hoops very hard, the inner part is compressed until the slight gaping outside is closed, and thus slight inaccuracies of fitting are remedied.

There are several branches of cooperage. The wet or tight cooper makes vessels for holding liquids. The dry cooper does inferior work, such as barrels for containing dry goods, where an inferior degree of accuracy is sufficient. The white cooper makes churns, pails, etc., which for the most part have straight sides.

The best work is made of oak, which must be thoroughly dried before being put together. In warm countries, the drying of the sun is sufficient, and casks are therefore mounted in summer only; but in Britain, artificial drying is commonly resorted to. The hoops are hammered down from the narrow to the wide part of the cask, by means of a mallet striking a piece of wood held against the hoop. Iron hoops are sometimes put on hot, in order that their contraction on cooling may bind the work together.

CO-OPERATION, in the social and economic sense of the word, generally means the association of work-people for the management of their own industrial interests in store, workshop, or other undertaking, and the equitable distribution of profits among those who own them. In Gt. Britain it has succeeded best in distribution-that is, in the form of co-operative stores for workmen's families; in Germany and Italy it has flourished chiefly under the form of people's banks, for furnishing mutual credit to workmen and small tradesmen. Co-operative production has not made corresponding progress. Early in the present century, or before it, there had been instances of co-operative industry among English miners, New England fishermen, and the Greek sailors of the Levant. The first co-operative society in England was founded in 1794 at Mongewell, Oxfordshire, by Shute Barrington, bishop of Durham. During the Owenite agitation, 1820-45, hundreds of societies rose up, which, for the most part, rapidly disappeared In 1844, 28 weavers, nearly all of whom were socialists of the Owen school and Chartists, founded the Rochdale society of equitable pioneers. With a capital of £28, they opened a store for supplying themselves with provisions, beginning with flour, butter, sugar, and oatmeal. Their success was rapid, and was due chiefly to their device of limiting interest on shares to 5 per cent. and dividing profits among members in proportion to their purchases. By 1857 they had a membership of 1850, a capital of £15,000, and annual sales to the amount of £80,000. The societies are now over 1400 in number, with nearly a million members. In 1864 the Wholesale society for the supply of commodities to the

various stores was established at Manchester, and a second at Glasgow in 1869; but the two work in harmony, and may be considered as one institution. In 1871 the Cooperative News was started as the organ of the co-operators. Since 1869 yearly national congresses of the societies have been held. Efforts after organization culminated in the consolidation of the co-operative union, with a regular constitution drawn up in 1873. Subject to the congress, the union is governed by a united board of 12 members, representing the 6 sections into which the union is divided. The sectional boards have monthly meetings of their own. The central co-operative board, consisting of all the members representing the 6 sections, comes together for business only at meetings of congress.

Any one may become a member of one of these societies on paying an entrance fee of one shilling, and members may pay up their shares at the rate of threepence a week. Shares are usually one pound each, and one or two of these transferable, but not withdrawable, constitutes all the capital a member is required to hold. The other share capital that a member may hold is withdrawable. The interest on capital is limited to 5 per cent. Goods are sold at the prices current among respectable shopkeepers in the neighborhood, and after paying expenses the net profits are distributed quarterly among the members in proportion to their purchases. These dividends may be allowed to accumulate in the store, but no member is permitted by law to hold more than £200. The general rule is that payments be made in ready money, a system to which co-operation largely owes its success; but the credit system is to some extent permitted. Irrespective of the amount of his investments, each member has only one vote. The members elect a committee for the management of the business. The committees have frequent meetings, and control the employees of the store. The members themselves hold quarterly and, in many cases, monthly meetings. The Wholesale society is a federation of retail societies, which have to take up shares, and they participate in the management in proportion to their membership. The Wholesale has purchasing and forwarding depots not only in England and Ireland, but in New York, Hamburg, Copenhagen, Calais and Rouen, and owns 5 steamships which ply between England and the Continent. It has boot and shoe factories at Leicester, soap-works at Durham, woolen_cloth works at Batley, etc. Besides the productive works of the Wholesale society, there are societies for production alone, societies for working corn-mills, etc. The annual production by societies adhering to the co-operative union is estimated at about £5,000,000. There is, also, a co-operative fire and life ins. company. In 1887 there were 1432 societies connected with the union, with a membership of 945,619, a share capital of £10,012,048, and sales to the amount of £34,189,715, on which profits to the amount of £3,193,178 were made. In these figures are included the returns of 3 civil service associations connected with the union. In 1888 the weekly circulation of the News was 35,800. About onesixth of the population of Gt. Britain is supplied in whole or in part through these stores. C. in England, though essentially a workmen's movement, owes much to the guidance of men of other classes-to Robert Owen, Maurice, Kingsley, Holyoake, Hughes, the marquis of Ripon, etc.

In the U. S. the Brook farm (q.v.) experiment may be regarded as the starting-point of the movement. Co-operative business in New England in 1886 reached the following figures in distribution, $2,000,000; productive co-operation, exclusive of creameries or dairies, $850,000; creameries, $500,000; banks, $3,500,000. In Philadelphia, cooperative building societies have provided workmen with from 80,000 to 100,000 homes. Since 1874 co-operation in the coopering trade at Minneapolis has been successful. In 1882 the students of Harvard univ. formed a co-operative society for supplying themselves with books, stationery, etc., and similar societies have been formed at Yale, at Michigan univ., and elsewhere.

In France the industrial partnership system, by which the capitalist gives his workmen a share in his profits, has made greater progress than the co-operative movement properly so called. At the revolution of 1848 the government gave some scanty subsidies to co-operative production, but only a few of the societies prospered. In Germany C. has flourished greatly in the form of people's banks. These originated in 1849, under the auspices of Schulze-Delitzsch, at the little town of Delitzsch in Saxony. In 1885 there were 3822 societies belonging to the Schulze-Delitzsch system, of which 1965 were credit societies, 678 for distribution, 493 for the purchase of raw material, etc. The aggregate membership was 1,500,000; the loan capital of £25,000,000; the share and reserve capital, £15,000,000, and the annual business, £150,000,000. Since 1859 they have held annual congresses. In 1885 there were 145 productive associations in Germany; 226 of these were co-operative dairies. In addition there were, in 1884, 800 societies (called after Raiffeisen, their founder), whose function it is to provide mutual credit for the small farmers of Germany. Austria had, in 1883, 1565 societies on the Schulze-Delitzsch system. In 1881 the kingdom of Hungary had 357 societies. In Belgium the movement has established itself on a very considerable scale at industrial centres, such as Ghent, in stores, bakeries, and in co-operative fisheries. In Denmark co-operative dairies have recently been making wonderful progress. In Italy, C. is making great progress, chiefly in the form of people's banks. In 1883 there were 250 such banks. At the end of 1885 their number had increased to 423, with £2,500,000 of share capital, and about £13,000,000 of loan capital. In 1885 there were about 250 co-operative dairies, and

Co-operation.

there are many bakeries, established with a view to checking the pellagra (q.v.) by the supply of wholesome bread. Such institutions receive the active support of the Italian government.

The various professional and civil service stores are simply a result of the application of the co-operative system for the supply of the wants of the middle classes, especially the professional classes and clerks, begun in 1864; and these stores now do a very large business, the largest being the army and navy stores in Victoria st., London. The salient difference between this middle class co-operation and that of the workingman is that the former admits of the system of privileged shareholders, whereas all the benefits of the latter are open to every one who pays an entrance fee of one shilling.

From the above facts it will be apparent that the purpose and tendency of the cooperative movement is that the workmen, through the principle of associated industry, by means of a joint capital, should equitably manage their own affairs so far as they can. Such management, we have seen, has been applied on a large scale to distribution and to people's banks, and has had a considerable success also in various forms of domestic production, as in corn-mills, bakeries, boot and shoe factories, dairies, etc. In the large and staple branches of manufacture it has as yet done very little. But so far as it has gone, the movement has been a real and effectual training for the intelligence, business capacity, and moral character of the workmen. It has taught them thrift. foresight, selfcontrol, and the habit of harmonious combination for common ends; and it has opened up an unlimited field for peaceful, hopeful, and successful effort in the future.

See Holyoake's History of Co-operation (2 vols.) and his Self-help a Hundred Years Ago (1888); Reports on Co-operation in Foreign Countries, a blue book issued in 1886; Workingmen Co-operators, by Acland and Jones (1884); English Associations of Workingmen, by Dr. Baernreither (1888); History of Co-operation in the United States, published under the auspices of Johns Hopkins univ. (Balt. 1888).

CO-OPERATION (ante), as a system of united effort for commercial or industrial purposes, has been introduced and is spreading among the working classes of this country. See Barnard's Co-operation as a Business (1881).

They co-operate in providing homes for themselves. Building-loan associations have existed in Philadelphia about 30 years. The members subscribe for a given number of shares and pay one dollar on each share every month for a term of years, until the sums paid and the interest on them amount to $200-the full value of the shares. This usually requires about 10 years. The money thus provided is loaned to the highest bidder. Each shareholder who builds or buys a house can, in order to help pay for it, borrow a part of the accumulated fund equal to the full value of his shares, paying the stipulated interest on it monthly, and giving, as security, a mortgage on the house. When his shares attain their full value, he has enough to pay the principal of the debt and cancel the mortgage. There are in Philadelphia more than 500 of these associations, with an ultimate capital of 100 millions of dollars. They have given homes to 60,000 workingmen, and now hold 80,000 mortgages, which are being paid off by monthly installments. Similar associations have been formed in Boston, where they are growing rapidly in usefulness, popularity, and strength, and in some other cities of the U. S.

The following information respecting purely co-operative associations is taken from articles by prof. Richard T. Ely, published in 1886. The largest proportions assumed by co-operation have been in connection with trades' union or labor organizations. The New England Protective Union (formed, 1845, as the Workingmen's Protective Union) was very successful, until the civil war. The patrons of Husbandry (Grangers), founded 1867, claims to have saved its members $12,000,000 in one year; and in 1876, owned five steamboat or packet lines, thirty-two grain elevators and twenty-two warehouses.

The Sovereigns of Industry, a secret society, founded 1874, abolished 1880, had many very successful stores connected with it. The Knights of Labor have about 100 co-operative undertakings in progress. Among unconnected stores is that of the Philadelphia Industrial Co-operative Society, founded 1874. The sales for the quarter ending May, 16, 1885 amounted to $57,000. Dividends are regularly paid on purchases. There are co-operative foundries in Albany, Troy, and Cincinnati, and in one in Rochester, one-fifth of the employés of which are stockholders.

The following periodicals are published by co-operative societies: the Labor Siftings of Fort Worth, Tex.; the Trades, Union of Atchison, Kan.; the People, Providence, R. I.; the Daily Evening Star, of Bay City, Mich.; the daily and weekly Laborer of Haverhill, Mass.; and the New Yorker Volkszeitung.

Among other organizations are the Carpenters' Co-operative Association, Decatur, Ill.; Easton (Pa.) Co-operative Manufacturing Company (boots and shoes); Concord Co-operative Printing Company (limited), 47 and 49 Centre street, New York; Co-operative Flint Works, Beaver Falls, Pa.; Richmond (Va.) Co-operative Commercial and Manufacturing Company (soap); Union Co-operative Granite Works, South Ryegate, Vt.; Quincy Cooperative Granite Works, West Quincy, Mass.; two co-operative hat companies, in South Norwalk, Ct.; Union Co-operative Building Association, Denver, Col.

A co-operative barrel factory was started in Minneapolis in 1874, and there are now seven of them, doing a business of one million dollars yearly. Interest is paid on money invested, and surplus profits are divided among the coopers in proportion to earnings. These

Coosy.

associations are specially adapted to large manufacturing districts, and the interest in them among workingmen and philanthropists is spreading. See FRIENDLY SOCIETIES.

COOPER RIVER, a stream in South Carolina, rising in Charleston co., flowing s.e. and uniting with the Ashley below the city of Charleston. It is navigable for 30 m. to a canal connecting with the Santee.

COOPERSTOWN, a village and seat of justice of Otsego co., N. Y., 60 m. w. of Albany, at the outlet of Otsego lake; reached by the Cooperstown and Susquehanna Valley railroad: pop. 2,300. It is in a fine and picturesque situation. The American novelist, James Fenimore Cooper, had his residence here, as did his father, after whom the village is named.

COOPER UNION, FOR THE ADVANCEMENT of SCIENCE AND ART. See page 891. CO-ORDINATES. What is called the method of C. is an invention of Descartes, whereby algebra and the calculus may be employed in geometrical investigations. The method is sometimes called algebraical geometry-sometimes, and more properly, analytical geometry; and it is commonly treated under the heads "geometry of two dimensions," and "geometry of three dimensions," according as it is applied to investigate the properties of figures all in one plane, or of curved surfaces. The method is capable of popular explanation. C. are lines so measured off from a fixed point, called the origin of C., along fixed lines passing through it, called the axis of C., as to determine by their quantities the position of any other point relative to the origin. The first step is to find how to determine the position of a point in a plane. Take any fixed point in it for the origin of C., and through it draw two fixed lines-the co-ordinate axes-at right angles to one another. Then, if the perpendicular distance of the point from each of these axes be given, its position will be determined. Referring to Fig. 1, if P be the point, and O be taken for the origin of C., OX, OY for the axes, then if we know NP or OM, the perpendicular distance of P from OY, and measure off from O, OM on the axis OX, and through M raise a line perpendicular to OX, P must lie in this line, for it contains all the points in the plane which are at the perpendicular distance OM from the axis OY. Similarly, if ON or PN, the perpendicular distance of P from the axis OX, be known, and we measure that distance off from O along OY, and through N draw a perpendicular to OY, the point must be in that perpendicular. It is therefore at the intersection of the perpendiculars through M and N respectively. When, as in the figure, the fixed lines are at right angles to one another, the C. OM, ON are called the rectangular C. of the point. Let us now see what use can be made of this mode of determining the position of the point, for the discovery of the properties of lines and surfaces. As the values of the C. change for the different points in the plane, they are denoted by the variables x and y. Now, if we suppose the point P to begin to move according to a determinate law, and the C. to change their magnitudes so as always to be its C., knowing the law of P's motion, we are able to express in algebraical language the law of the corresponding changes in its co-ordinates. For instance, if P moves so as to be always at the same distance from O, OP is constant, and (47th Prop. Euclid, Book I.) the square on OP is equal to the sum of the squares on OM and PM. Putting this into algebraical language, we have the equation, a2 + y2 R2, or y = ±

0

P

M

Fig. 1.

=

R2, where R = OP. This is called the equation of the circle referred to its center as origin, and to rectangular C.; and it expresses the law according to which the changes of the C. must take place: and from this equation, combined with that to a straight line, etc., every property of the circle may be determined. If P move so that the sum of the distances from two fixed points shall be always the same, and we express the relation between x and y in that case, we should have the equation of an ellipse. This suffices to show in a general way the nature of the method. Equations between and y are called the equations of the lines, whether straight or curved, traced out by the point P; and by means of them, though they but express relations between quantities, the qualities of the lines to which they refer may, by artifices explained in every treatise on the subject, be detected. Nay, by assuming equations between x and y, and examin

Y

P

Z

ing the lines which points represented by them would trace, many singular curves have been discovered. There are a variety of conditions to be attended to in the interpretation of such equations, depending on the assumptions set out with, in choosing the origin and axis. The axis of a or OX being taken to the -X right of the origin, and the axis of y or OY being perpendicular to it and above it, x and y are counted positive when they are measured along their axes to the right of and above the origin respectively, and negative when they are measured to the left and downwards respectively. Suppose x = OM ON, and y = MP MP1 = NP3 = NP2, the C. of the points P, P1, P2, P, would be (+x+y), (+ x, − y), (− x, + y), (−x, − y) respectively. equidistant from O, we may suppose a circle to pass through them. equation of the circle, y = WR - 2, the meaning will be seen of the two values and of y given by the quadratic. Often the axes of C.

P1

Pa

ย

Fig. 2.

Recurring now to the

These points being

=