Senators and Representatives cannot be impeached. The President, Vice President, and all civil officers of the United States may be removed from office, on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors (O).

Only eight such cases of impeachment have occurred since the adoption of the Constitution. The first case presented before the Senate, that of Senator William Blount (1799), did not come to trial; the decision was made that, under the Constitution, only "civil officers" can be impeached, and that a Senator of the United States is not a civil officer. The other noted cases are those of Justice Samuel Chase of the Supreme Court (1804), and President Andrew Johnson (1868). The impeachment of Justice Chase was a dangerous interference with the independence of the Judiciary. He was acquitted by the Senate; and, after this failure, the Supreme Court was never again directly attacked by the political branches of the Government. President Johnson, in the troublous times of reconstruction, escaped conviction by but a single vote. Four Judges of the District Courts of the United States have been impeached: John Pickering (1803), James H. Peck (1830), W. H. Humphries (1862), and Charles Swayne (1905). Judge Pickering seems to have been insane, and was removed from office; Judge Peck was acquitted, and Judge Humphries was convicted of treason. Judge Charles Swayne was impeached for residing outside of his district, and for overcharges and other improper conduct; but the Senate, regarding the charges unfounded, acquitted him. In 1876 W. W. Belknap, Secretary of War, was impeached, but was acquitted.

Bills for Raising Revenue.-All bills for raising revenue must originate in the House of Representatives, but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments, as on other

bills (H1). In all free countries the legislative branch tends to become the most powerful, and is clothed with those powers which come nearest to the people. Among these is the power to tax. Congress has ample revenue powers, but the power to originate all such bills is vested in that house which is supposed to be in closest touch with the people. The Senate may, however, originate a bill which requires the expenditure of money, but the House must originate the bill for levying the tax required.

Sessions of Congress.-Congress must assemble at least once every year, and such meeting is on the first Monday in December, unless by law Congress appoints a different day (E2). Each Congress lasts two years, that is, during the time for which each new set of Representatives is elected. There are two regular sessions: a long session, and a short session. The long session begins on the first Monday in December following the beginning of the Representative's term, and continues until some time in midsummer. The short session begins on the first Monday of the following December, but can continue only until March 4 of the next year, at which time the term of office expires for all Representatives and for one third of the Senators. Long sessions end in even years (1910, 1912, etc.), and short sessions in odd years (1909, 1911, etc.). Congress may by law provide for special sessions, or may hold adjourned sessions. Extra sessions may be called at any time by the President of the United States for the transaction of urgent business. Unless an extra session of Congress is called, newly elected members do not take their seats until thirteen months after their election. The term "a Congress" is applied to so much of the continuous life of the National Legislature as is embraced within the full term of the Representative. The First Congress was that filling the period 1789-1791;

the Second, that of 1791-1793; while the Sixty-first Congress has the period 1909-1911.

Neither house, during the session of Congress, can, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two houses are sitting (F4). Both houses have been called together in special session but twelve times in the history of our country. A special session of the Senate is always called after the inauguration of a President, in order to confirm his appointments. The Senate alone has repeatedly been called in extra session to confirm appointments and to ratify treaties. The House of Representatives has never been called in special session alone, since without the Senate it cannot complete any public busi

ness.

Privileges and Disabilities.-During their attendance at the sessions of their respective houses, or while going to or returning from the same, Senators and Representatives are exempt from arrest except for treason, felony, or breach of the peace (G1). Nor can a member of either house be held liable to prosecution for libel or slander for anything which he may have said in Congress in any speech or debate. This freedom from arrest and this exemption from responsibility are really to protect the rights of the people; since the Nation should not be deprived of the services of the representatives of the people, nor should freedom of debate be limited.

No Senator or Representative can be appointed to any office under the authority of the United States which shall have been created, or the pay of which shall have been increased during the time for which he was elected (G2). A Senator or a Representative may be appointed to any office that existed at the time of his election, if the pay has not been increased. But he must resign his seat in Congress; for no person, holding

Am. Cit.-16

any office under the United States, can be a member of either house during his continuance in office (G2).

Contests: Quorum.-When any question is raised as to the election or qualification of a member, the house in which he claims a seat decides it. A majority of each house constitutes a quorum, but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day and compel the attendance of absent members (F1). Rules: Expulsions.-Each house determines the rules of its proceedings, punishes its members for disorderly behavior, and by a two-thirds vote may expel a member (F 2).

The Journal. Each house keeps a journal of its proceedings, and these are published from time to time except such parts as require secrecy. At the desire of one fifth of the members present, the yeas and nays are entered on the journal (F3).

Committees. Congress necessarily transacts an immense amount of business in legislating for the wealthiest nation on the globe a nation of seventy-six millions of people, inhabiting a territory of over three and one half millions of square miles. In order to expedite business, each house of Congress is divided into a large number of committees. Each committee is concerned with a certain class of business; and bills, when introduced, are referred to the proper committees for consideration. The committees consider these bills carefully, investigate, and, if necessary, ask the opinion of outside persons in order to discover the value of the measures. After such consideration, the bills are reported back to the House or Senate. Only the more important ones reach this stage; for, on account of lack of time, if for no other reason, the majority are "killed in committee." Thus the committees determine the form and character of our laws. The debates on the bills when presented are really discussions of the reports of the

various committees. The report of a committee usually decides the fate of a measure. The power of appointing committees has recently been taken away from the Speaker, but the change will be complete only when he is deprived of his function of leadership of his party.

One of the most important committees in the House of Representatives is the Committee on Rules. Formerly it consisted of the Speaker as chairman, who appointed four others of the most experienced and influential members, two from each of the leading parties. The new plan (1910) gives an enlarged membership, elected by the House, and forbids participation by the Speaker in the meetings of the committee. The chairman of the Committee on Rules divides with the Speaker authority over the deliberations of the House, and responsibility for action is thus distributed.

Mode of Passing Bills.-A bill is a proposed law. In the general process of legislation, it may become a law by receiving the consent of Congress and that of the President of the United States. A law regulates, controls, governs, and must be obeyed. A bill has no force of itself.

Any bill, excepting one of revenue, may be introduced in either the Senate or the House of Representatives. It is then referred to the proper committee. If it is reported back and passed by a majority in each house, it is then sent to the President of the United States. If he signs it, the bill becomes a law of the country (H 2).

If the President does not approve of the bill, he returns it to the house in which it originated, with a message in which he sets forth his objections and his reasons for refusing to sign it. When the President returns a bill unsigned, he is said to veto it. The term veto means "I forbid." The bill may yet become a law, however. The house to which the bill is returned