ex officio, and of four princes of the imperial house. Its chief function is to examine the laws proposed by the ministers, to discuss the budget and all the annual expenditures to be made. It does not propose legislation, however, it merely gives advice to the ministry upon its measures of legislation.

The second board is the Ruling Senate. The Senators are persons of high rank or station. Eminent lawyers preside over the departments into which it is divided. These lawyers represent the Emperor, and without their signatures a decision of the Senate is not valid. All laws proposed by the ministry must be promulgated by the Senate. It is also a high court of justice for the empire; and each department is authorized to hear cases in appeal coming under its jurisdiction. The Senate can make remonstrances to the Emperor when it discovers injustice and irregularity in the affairs of the realm.

This third board has supervision of the religious affairs. Its members are high officials of the Greek Church. All decisions are made in the Emperor's name and must be approved by him.

The fourth board is the Committee of Ministers, consisting of thirteen members. They all communicate directly with the Czar. He has also two private cabinets, one of which is occupied with charities and the other with education. Then there are three other special cabinets, one of which is entrusted with the petitions addressed to the Czar.

31. Local Government.-A part of the local church and civil government is entrusted to the people. For this purpose the whole country is divided into communes, whose peasants elect from among themselves an elder as

executive and a tax collector as a superintendent of public stores. Communal assemblies which are composed of all the householders in the commune, or village, are held to discuss and decide communal affairs. Communes

are united into cantons, whose elder is elected by cantonal assemblies composed of delegates elected by the village assemblies, one delegate to every ten householders. The cantonal assemblies elect from four to twelve judges, who constitute a court for the administration of justice. The canton is the widest form of peasant self-government. Above the canton is the district, which likewise has its assembly. The district is a political division of the province, upon which, as a whole, the Ministry of the Empire acts through the provincial governor. The province, too, has its assembly; but its members are selected from the membership of the district assembliesone for every six members. What measure of self-government the Russian peasants enjoy is confined to the communal officers and assemblies. The cantonal government has largely fallen into disuse, having been absorbed by the landowners who control the districts of a province.

JAPAN

32. An Empire.-Japan is an empire, which, it is claimed, was founded 660 B.c. and is ruled now by the same dynasty that formed it. The system of government was that of an absolute monarchy until 1889, when a constitution was promulgated by the Emperor.

33. The Executive.-The Emperor is the head of the empire. He has the title of Tenno, in honor of the

founder of the dynasty. To foreigners he is known as the Mikado. In him are vested all the rights of sovereignty. For instance, the constitution did not proceed from the people but from him; and any amendment of it can be made by him only. He exercises all executive powers. He declares war, makes peace, and concludes treaties.

34. The Cabinet.-The members of the Cabinet, ten in number, are appointed by the Emperor and are responsible to him, and not, as in most other limited monarchies, to the Parliament. But strong efforts have been made to establish a different relation between the Cabinet and the Parliament. There is also a Privy Council attached to the Emperor, who consider the matters of state submitted to them and give advice. The members of the Cabinet have charge of the various executive departments, of foreign affairs, finance, war, education, etc.

35. The Imperial Diet.-This is the Parliament of Japan. It consists of two houses, a House of Peers and a House of Representatives. Either house may initiate questions for legislation, and make suggestions to the Emperor as to laws or any other subject. When a law is submitted to them they deliberate and vote upon it; but when it comes to the budget they can neither reduce nor reject that part of it which provides for the necessary expenses of the Government.

36. The House of Peers.-This house has nearly 375 members. All the male members of the imperial family of full age (twenty-five years), a number of princes and marquises, and a small number of persons appointed by the Emperor for meritorious services to the state or to learning, are peers for life. The others are elected for

seven years by the orders of rank and wealth to which they belong and which are filled by appointment from the Emperor.

37. The House of Representatives.-This body is composed of 369 members, elected by the male Japanese subjects of not less than twenty-five years of age and who pay a certain amount of taxes. A male who is more than thirty years old may, however, be elected to the House of Representatives without being a tax payer. Its president is appointed by the Emperor from among three members nominated by it.

38. The Judiciary.-There are four courts: District, Original, Appellate, and Cassation. The judges are appointed by the Emperor for life and can be dismissed from office only by a sentence passed by the criminal court.

39. The Local Government.-For local government the Empire is divided into prefectures, subdivided into cities and counties. The counties are again divided into towns and villages. All these divisions have their assemblies, or legislative bodies, elected by the people. The governor of a prefecture and the sheriff of a county are appointed by the central Government; the other chief executive officers are elected by the assemblies. Mayors must have the approval of the Emperor; and magistrates of towns and villages, that of the governor of the prefecture. To be a voter requires citizenship and residence, an age of twenty-five years and the payment of taxes. There are no class distinctions in civil rights among Japanese subjects and freedom of religion is guaranteed throughout the Empire.