posely invented to deceive. A nobility stripped of all independence, and being nothing but a set of court retainers, the Roman senate under the emperors, the court of peers under Henry the Eighth, representative houses without power or free action, courts-martial dictated to by a despot, elections without freedom, are tremendous engines of iniquity. They bear the responsibility, without free agency. They are in practice what syllogism is without truthfulness. But this is no reproach to the institution in general, nor any reason why we ought not to rely upon it. Many an old church has served as a den for robbers. Shall we build no churches? If the institution is effete, let it be destroyed, but do it, as Montesquieu says of laws in general, "with a trembling hand," lest you destroy what only appeared to your onesided view as effete. Still more vigorously must the battering-ram be directed against institutions which from the beginning have been bad, or which plainly are hostile to a new state of things. There are institutions as inconsistent with the true aim of society, though few are as monstrous, as the regularly incorporated prostitutes of ancient Geneva were. They must be razed. All historical development contains conservatism, progress and revolution, as christianity itself is most conservative and most revolutionary. The vital question is, when? And from all that has been stated, it must have appeared that the institution greatly aids in the best progress of which society is capable, that which consists in organic changes, changes which lie in the very principles of continuity and conservatism themselves. VOL. II.-4

There are no countries on the European continent where such constant and vast changes are going on, in spite of all their outer revolutions, as in the United States and in England, for the very reason that they are institutional governments-that there exists self-government with them; yet they move within their institutions. This truth is symbolically exemplified in Westminster Abbey and the Champ de Mars. Century after century the former has stood, and what course of historical development has flowed through it! What representative festivities, on the other hand, from the feast of the Universal Federation of France in 1790 to the distribution of eagles to the army in May 1852, have succeeded each other on the latter-revolutionary, conventional, republican, imperial, royal, imperial-restorational, again Bourbonian, Orleanistic, socialistic, and uncrowned-imperialist and imperial—yet centralism has worked its steady dis-individualizing way through all. There แ are sermons in stones," and sermons in places.

4 The following is taken from a late French paper. It is of sufficient symbolic interest to find a place in a note:

In 1790, on the 14th of July, the anniversary of the taking of the Bastile was celebrated by what was called the Fête of the Universal Federation of France. Delegations were sent to it by every department, city, town, and village in the country, all eager to manifest their enthusiasm for the revolution of 1789. Every hundred of the National Guards was represented by six members; and there were also six deputies from every regiment of infantry, and four for every regiment of cavalry. These "confederates," as they were styled, were all entertained by the inhabitants of Paris, who are said to have rivalled each other in hospitality. In order to afford facilities to the immense number of spectators who were expected

on the Champ-de-Mars, over twelve thousand workmen were employed to surround it with embankments. Fears, however, being

still entertained that the work would not be completed in time, all Paris turned out to assist. Men, women, and children, the National guard, priests even, and sisters of charity, all took part in it. The Abbe Sieyes and Viscount Beauharnais were seen tugging together at the same wheelbarrow. At the entrance to the field was erected an immense triumphal arch; while in the centre was raised an altar, called the Altar of the Country, at which officiated Talleyrand, then Bishop of Autun. A bridge of boats was stretched across the Seine, near the Champ-de-Mars, where since has been erected the bridge of Jena.

In 1791, on the 18th of September, there was a splendid Fête for the publication of the Constitution, and for receiving the oath of fidelity to it from Louis XVI.

In 1792, on the 15th of April, the Fête of Liberty was celebrated. The centre of attraction was an enormous car, in which was placed a statue of Liberty, holding a liberty-cap in one hand and in the other a club. To such an extent was the principle of freedom carried on this occasion that there was not a single policeman present to preserve order. The master of ceremonies was armed only with an ear of corn; nevertheless, there is said to have been no disorder.

In 1793, there was a fête in honor of the abolition of slavery. On the 10th of August of the same year, there was a fête for the acceptance of the Constitution of 1793. The President of the Convention received eighty-three Commissioners from the departments; after which the registers upon which were inscribed the votes of the Primary Assemblies were brought to him, and he deposited them upon the "Altar of the Country," amid the firing of cannon, and the rejoicing of the people, who swore to defend the constitution with their lives. On the 2d December following, the Fête of Victories took place, in celebration of the taking of Toulon. On this occasion the Altar of the Country was transformed, by the poet-painter David, into a temple of immortality.

In 1794, on the 21st of January, the anniversary of the death of Louis XVI. was celebrated by all the principal authorities going to the Altar of the Country, and renewing their oath of hatred to royalty. On the 9th of June of the same year, the Fête of the Su

preme Being commenced at the Tuileries, and was terminated on the Champ de Mars. In the centre of the plain a Mountain" was thrown up, surmounted by an oak. On the summit of the mountain were seated the representatives of the people; while near them were a number of young men, with drawn swords in their hands, in the act of striking a symbolical figure of the "monster fanaticism."

In 1796, on the 21st January, the anniversary of the death of Louis XVI. was again celebrated. All the public functionaries renewed once more their oath of hatred to royalty; and the people spent the day singing the Marseilles Hymn, Ca ira, and various patriotic songs. On the 30th of March following, the Fête of Youth took place, on occasion of arming all the young men over sixteen years of age; and on the 30th of April, on the proposition of Carnot, the Fête of Victories was celebrated.

In 1798, on the 20th of March, was the Fête of the Sovereignty of the People. On the 10th Vendemaire, there was a funeral fête in memory of General Hoche. On the 10th Messidor, the Fête of Agri

culture took place, with a great display of chariots, cattle, fruits, &c. During the five supplementary days of the revolutionary year, there was a series of fêtes, with an exposition of all the products of French industry, on the Champ-de-Mars.

In 1801, there were fêtes in memory of the foundation of the Republic, and in celebration of general peace, which were attended by the First Consul.

In 1804, on the 10th of November, Napoleon, then Emperor, repaired to the Champ-de-Mars, and there received the oath of fidelity and obedience from deputations representing all the corps of the

army.

In 1814, on the 7th of September, the government of the Restoration distributed colors to the National Guard of Paris. The object of this distribution was to efface, if possible, even the memory of the eagles of the empire, and of the tri-colored standard of the revolution. An altar glittering with gold and costly drapery was erected near the military school, and in front was placed the throne occupied by Louis XVIII., who was accompanied by the Count of Artois, the Duke of Angouleme, and the Duke of Berri. Mass was celebrated by the Archbishop of Paris, M. Talleyrand Perigord, uncle of the Bishop of Autun, who, as we have seen, officiated

at the Fête of Federation in 1790. The National Guards defiled before the Throne, while the band played Vive Henry IV! and Charmante Gabrielle.

In 1815, on the 1st of June, there was a fête in celebration of the return of the Emperor. Napoleon appeared on the throne with his three brothers. A mass was performed; the constitution was acclaimed with enthusiasm; and the air was rent with cries of Vive Napoléon! The oath was taken with enthusiasm. Napoleon addressed the soldiers from the throne in the following words:

"Soldiers of the National Guard of Paris; soldiers of the Imperial Guard: I confide to you the imperial eagle, with the national standard. You swear to defend it with your lives, if need be, against the enemies of the country and this throne. You swear never to rally under any other banner."

During the restoration, the Champ-de-Mars was used chiefly for reviews of the National Guard; the most notable of which was the last one passed by Charles X., when the citizens manifested that hostility to the king which was a prelude to the revolution of 1830.

In 1837, there was a grand fête in honor of the marriage of the Duke of Orleans, on which occasion the crowd in the Champ-deMars was so great that twenty-four persons were suffocated or crushed to death. During most of the reign of Louis Philippe, however, the principal gatherings in the Champ-de-Mars were on occasion of military reviews and horse-races.

In 1848, on the 22d of May, the Fête of Concord was celebrated with great pomp. The Moniteur alluded to the occasion thus:

"This solemnity was celebrated with an eclat enhanced by the magnificent weather. Under so clear a sky, and surrounded by so many joyful countenances, how was it possible to experience any feelings but those of love, conciliation and harmony? What struck us, especially, was the attitude, so full of enthusiasm and confidence, of the vast concourse of people that crowded the Champ-deMars; cries, a thousand times repeated, of Vive la République! Vive la République Démocratique! Vive l'Assemblée Nationale! broke out, in formidable chorus, every instant, as if to proclaim the respect of the people for the institutions which they have adopted, and their invincible repugnance to every retrograde or reactionary idea."

To this must be added the gigantic military fête on the 10th