The Subject and its Varieties.

63. The subject may take any of the forms of the sub

stantive.

Observe, that no mere attributive can form the subject. We cannot say, "convenient is to be studied," because convenient is an attributive. Convert it into the substantive, convenience, and that may become the subject. So, wise, good, lawless, may be turned into the substantives, the wise, the good, the lawless, and thus become subjects.

64. The substantive is,

1. A noun, when it is the name of an object. Ex.-George, Boston, man, house, flock, virtue.

2. A pronoun, when it takes the place of a noun in order to refer to some object already named, or to the person who is speaker or hearer, even though not named.

Ex. When Henry had finished his letter, he sent it to the office. I(the speaker-name not necessarily known) ask you (the hearer-he may be a stranger) to record your name. The trees which (= trees) were cut have decayed. Who (name not known) is there?

3. An attributive used as a noun, or converted into a noun.

Ex-The poor, the feeble, fruitful-ness, patien(t)ce, tru(e)th; also, walking, in "walking is agreeable;" in like manner, riding, or to walk, to ride.

4. A word, letter, syllable, or symbol, when taken as the thing itself, and not in reference to its signification.

Ex. Is is a verb. A is a vowel. Un is a prefix. X is the sign of multiplication. (?) is the sign of interrogation.

5. A phrase or clause used to name a thought.

Ex. To be or not to be, that is the question. That the wave theory best accounts for the facts in Optics is now generally acknowledged.

SUGGESTION. As the purpose of these exercises is culture as well as the marking of grammatical distinctions, the teacher should not fail to direct attention to the thoughts expressed, as well as to the expressions which embody them.

If the learner does not readily make the distinction between object and attribute, a few simple illustrations with familiar objects will make it plain. If in his sentences he inserts other than the predicative combinations, as he will and should do for the sake of completeness, the teacher will draw special attention in Section I. to this combination only.

Exercise upon the Classes of Substantives.

65. In the following sentences select the subjects and the predicates, and tell which subjects are nouns, which pronouns, which attributives used as nouns.

Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself. Their prince is a man of learning and virtue. One common right the great and lowly claim. Matter is not indued with self-motion. This little brand will serve to light your fire. We are engaged in war; the Secretary of State calls on the colonies to contribute. The opening of the wooded glade gave them a view of the castle. The good will be rewarded.

66. Write short sentences and describe some object, as a shower, a ride, a garden, and let the thoughts be so connected as to require pronouns or substantives of reference.

Ex. The stranger came to the door. He inquired the way to the nearest inn. I observed an expression of sadness in his countenance, etc., etc.

67. Construct short sentences, and employ as subjects the following attributives (64.3); rich, brave, cool, virtuous, wise, skating, laughing; also Boston, good, is, +, ; a, ‚—as mere words, signs, or letters.

m,

68. Point out the subjects and predicates in 66 and 67, and classify them.

Classes of Nouns and Pronouns.

69. The subject may be a noun or a pronoun in any of the following classes :

NOUNS.

1. Nouns are divided into two classes, proper and common. 2. A proper noun is the name of an individual object.

Ex.-James, Erie.

PRONOUNS.

1. Pronouns are divided into three classes, personal, relative, and interrogative.

2. A personal pronoun is used to represent a noun, and to show

3. A common noun is a name its reference to the first, second, or which applies to each individual

Exercise upon the several kinds of Nouns and Pronouns.

70. What pronouns should represent the following nouns? James, Charles, Mary, brothers, sisters, citizens, teacher; (1) as speaker; (2) as hearer; (3) as spoken of.

Ex.-James-I (as speaker); you (as hearer); he (as spoken of).

71. Write or speak sentences in which a personal pronoun,

as subject,shall take the place of each of them,—(1) as speaker; (2) as hearer; (3) as party spoken of.

72. What pronouns as subjects should take the place of earth, Moses, fisher, cherries, virtue, snow? Give the sentences (1) as statements; (2) as inquiries.

Ex. Earth-It is a ball. What turns on its axis daily?

Observe, the relative pronoun is never used in a simple sentence. Notice, also, that when the noun means more than one, or stands for a male; female, or neither, the pronoun takes a form to represent these distinctions.

73. Which of the following nouns are proper? common? collective? abstract? verbal?-London, Amsterdam, men, wealth, herd, Socrates, wolf, hen, goodness, a writing, mercy, committee, senate, kingdom.

74. Put pronouns for each, and tell whether your pronoun is personal or interrogative.

75. Analyze the following propositions, and tell which subjects are proper, which are common, and which are collective nouns :—

Alexander conquered. Zeno was a philosopher. Gray was a poet. Orders were issued. Snow falls. Temperance is a virtue. Waves dash. Darkness prevails. The army marched. The school was dismissed. The council was divided. Wrestling is dangerous. Lying is wicked. Charles reads. Age overtakes. Poets sing. Winds blow.

76. Write subjects to the following predicates:

Proper Nouns. Is able; was prevented; believes; sings; dances; plays; is a merchant; is a teacher; is delighted; must come; is honorable; is-faithful?

Ex.-Samuel is able.

Common Nouns. Run; is content; is laudable; is pleasant; is consumed; can live; write;' are trees; are birds; are fishes; is desirable; is-contemptible?

Ex-Horses run.

Collective Nouns. Was divided; was convened; were pleased; was defeated; was dismissed.

Ex. The school was divided.

77. Put pronouns for each.

The Predicate and its Varieties.

78. The predicate may take any of the forms of the attributive.

Observe, that while the mere attributive cannot form the subject, the substantive as such may be the subject, and when used attributively with the copula may form the predicate. The learner will discover in time that the noun becomes common only by virtue of attributes which each and every individual in a class has in common (see 13.3. a). Hence, when we use a substantive attributively, we direct attention more especially to these characteristic attributes. Thus, Milton the poet, means that Milton who had the poetic attributes.

79. The attributive is,—

1. A verb, a word which combines in itself both the copula and the attribute.

Ex.-Sing, meditate, plead, inquire, walk.

Observe, in this case, the attribute is that of action (55. 1).

2. A participle, a word derived from the verb; it is the verb without the power of predicating.

Ex.-Riding, rode, having ridden. Reading, read, having read. He is reading, he has read.

Observe, the copula must be prefixed to make the affirmation; and as it vir tually restores the original form, the two together are called the verb.

3. An adjective, a word used to express quality, state, or limitation. Ex-Useful, attractive, cold, strong, feeble, true, this.

Here, also, the copula must be prefixed, and the two together form the predi cate, but as parts of speech they must be taken separately.

4. A substantive, used attributively.

"

Ex.-Man, horses, trees, fruit, gold, as in "This is the man." Those animals are horses." Oaks are trees."

(a.) In this case the copula is needed to form the predicate, and the two must be taken together as predicate, and separately as parts of speech. Since the copula is a verb of incomplete predication, the general rule for forming the predicate is as follows:

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