(a.) Either order becomes "natural" when universal usage establishes it. Thus, in English the logical order in the predicative, objective, and adverbial combinations is the natural order; equally natural is the inverted order in the adjective combination "good news." Either seems inverted when, for poetic or rhetorical effect, the customary order is changed. In certain forms of the adjective combination, as, for example, the case of apposition, the adjective phrase or clause, the logical order prevails; and in certain constructions the inverted order is the true arrangement for the predicative, objective, and adverbial combinations.

Ex-Why stand ye here idle? The message which he sent. He often fails.

33. In combining elements, we must distinguish not only the elements themselves, but also the words which enter into them.

(a.) By a fundamental law of the mind every object of thought must be regarded as substance or attribute, and, hence, every thought-word is a substantive or an attributive. By a fundamental law of combining words, a substantive joined subordinately to a substantive becomes virtually attributive or adjective (25. a.), and an attributive joined subordinately to an attributive becomes adverbial (28. a.). Hence,

34. All words expressing thought alone are substantive, adjective, or adverbial.

(a.) No sentence can have any other materials for its thoughts; it may have other words to denote relations.

35. All words employed to show the subordinate relations in any of the four combinations are,—

1. Auxiliaries, or verbal words to show the relation of the attribute to the subject in the predicative combination.

Ex. They have laid down their arms. It doth appear you are a worthy judge. All men are mortal.

2. Prepositions, to show the relation of the subordinate object to its principal or antecedent, in the adjective and adverbial combinations.

Ex. The life of all truly great men has been a life of intense and incessant labor. Go in peace.

3. Conjunctive words, to show the relation of the subordinate proposition to its principal or antecedent.

Ex. He is a miracle of genius because he is a miracle of labor.

(a.) A special kind of conjunction called co-ordinate, is used for all co-ordi

nate terms.

36. Besides these, two kinds of words express both thought and relation at once, namely,—

1. The verb, which combines in one word both the attribute and its predicative relation to the subject.

Ex.-Time-flies. We-went. They-ride.

2. The pronoun, which takes the place of the substantive, to show its relation to the speaker, the hearer, or to some object previously named.

Ex.-I, the President of the United States, issue this proclamation. My son, thou art ever with me.

(a.) Thus, we have,—

1. Simple thought-words: (a.) Substantives or nouns, common, proper, collective, and abstract; (b.) attributives, adjectives, and participles.

2. Simple relation-words: auxiliaries, prepositions, and all conjunctive words. 3. Complex words, combining both thought and relation: verbs and pronouns.

Modes of Expressing Relation.

37. The relation of two combined elements to each other may be expressed,

3. By a word used as exponent of the relation.

Ex.-Order-of-exercises. The night—is-dark. We-shall-ride.

38. The relation of the entire thought to the speaker, hearer, or to some party already named is denoted not by position or inflection, but by the substitution of a word (a pronoun) for the object in its relation.

39. A language is called,

1. Synthetic, when the relations are indicated in a great measure by inflection of the thought-words, and not by words of relation.

2. Analytic, when the thoughts and their relations are expressed chiefly by separate words.

(a.) The Latin and the Greek are synthetic languages. The English is in a high degree analytic. Thus, the Latin word monuerim is in English I-mayhave-advised.

Successive Steps in Analysis.

40. Every discourse is supposed to be addressed to some party whose name or title is called the compellative. Ex. My lords, this is a most exquisite dilemma, from which there is no escaping.

41. Every discourse is to be regarded first as a whole, and then separated into its highest co-ordinate divisions. These, in turn, are to be separated into the next lower divisions, and so on, till, after passing down through Part, Chapter, Section, and Paragraph, we reach the Sentence.

42. Every sentence, taken as a whole, is the expression of a complete thought, and is to be classified according to the nature of the thought (6).

43. Since every sentence is a proposition or a combination of propositions, it must be,—

1. A principal proposition alone, and hence a simple sentence, or 2. A principal proposition, having in one of its elements a subordinate proposition, and hence a complex sentence, or

3. A principal proposition, having in co-ordinate combination with it another principal proposition, and hence a compound sentence.

44. Every proposition, principal or subordinate,—

1. Must have the predicative combination containing the principal elements, the subject and the predicate, and—

2. May have any or all of the other combinations containing the subordinate elements, the adjective, the objective, or the adverbial. Ex.-Trees-grow. Ice-melts. Stars-shine. Some-men-prosper. Industrious-pupils-easily-master-their lessons.

45. Every combination has,—

1. Two elements expressing conceptions or thoughts, and

2. A relation between them, predicative, adjective, objective, or adverbial, showing the nature of their union; it may be shown in one of three ways (35).

46. Every element is either principal or subordinate, and may be,

A. 1. A word (simple), substantive, adjective, or adverbial,-(mixed) a verb, or pronoun,- —a simple element, first class.

2. A word, as the basis or principal of a complex element, of the first class, the whole being substantive, adjective or adverbial.

Observe, in this case, the added word becomes subordinate to the basis forming new combinations with relations; as, in (34) above, and is itself substantive, adjective, or adverbial.

3. A word co-ordinately combined with another word of the same rank, both forming a compound element of the first class, the whole being substantive, adjective, or adverbial.

Observe, here, that the compound element may be either the principal or the subordinate term of any one of the four combinations; as, You and I-write. He-reads and writes. She plays-correctly and elegantly.

B. 1. A phrase alone taken as one word, substantive, adjective, or adverbial, a simple element, second class.

2. A phrase as basis of a complex element of the second class, the whole being substantive, adjective, or adverbial.

3. A phrase in co-ordinate union with another phrase of the same character and rank, forming a compound element of the second class.

C. 1. A clause alone, consisting of the predicative combination taken as one word, substantive, adjective, or adverbial,—a simple element, third class.

2. A clause having the predicative combinations as basis of a complex element of the third class.

3. A clause in co-ordinate union with another clause of the same rank and character, forming a compound element of the third class.

47. Every word is,

1. A pure substantive, that is, a noun, common, proper, collective, or abstract; or a mixed substantive, that is, pronoun, personal, relative, or interrogative.

2. A pure attributive, that is, an adjective, limiting or qualifying, a participle, present, past, active, passive; or a mixed attributive, that is, a finite verb, transitive, intransitive, or copulative.

3. A pure relative, that is, a simple auxiliary, preposition or conjunctive word; or a mixed relative, that is, the relative pronouns, and relative or conjunctive adverbs, and some of the auxiliaries and prepositions.

(a.) This includes all possible parts of speech except the interjection. That, being a mere expression of emotion, and not of thought or the relation of thought, is not regarded as a part of speech.

48. The entire sentence and its several elements may be represented by a system of significant symbols.

(a.) No system can be devised to represent all the subtle distinctions of thought, and consequently no attempt is made to meet every emergency. It is proposed to show in a condensed form, the general features of any sentence.

1. With the exception of V, taking the initial letters of the elements, capitals for the principal elements and small letters for the subordinate, we have S for subject, P for predicate, a, 0, V, respectively for the adjective, objective, and adverbial elements.

2. Then, as there are four distinct combinations, and two elements must enter in as factors of each, we readily make up these by uniting their symbols as factors; as follows,——

SP Predicative combination.-Birds fly. Ice melts. Who comes?

a S
PoObjective combination.-Eats bread. Gives me. Finding fault.
Py Adverbial combination.—Runs swiftly. Come now.

Attributive combination.-White birds. Cold ice. John's book.

Stop there.

(a.) Then, by bringing these combinations together, we may have the simple sentence in any form, first with elements of the first class. Thus, Those birds fly a SP; Red squirrels eat nuts a S Po; and a S P{!=Red squirrels eat nuts greedily.

=

(b.) When an element occurs twice or more, and has the same form or class, let 2, 3, 4, etc., be placed before it in the manner of a co-efficient. Thus, Those large red cherries tempt us: =3a S Po

3. As there are three distinct forms or classes of the elements, we have only to place the exponents 1, 2, 3, over the symbol to indicate its class.

=

(a.) Thus, S'P' Birds fly. S' P2. Birds are bipeds. To steal is base = S' P. That the earth revolves on its axis is satisfactorily demonstrated