Itamarca

with in many parts. In the Apennines are found alabaster, jasper, agate, rock-crystal, chalcedony, lapislazuli, crysolite, with other valuable stones. These mountains abound in basalt, dried lava, sulphur, pozzolana sand, and similar volcanic matter. The other mineral productions are alum, copper, and iron. Mineral springs, both cold and hot, are found in various parts of Italy. Manf. Silk is the staple, and after it come linen and woollen. Wine and strong spirits are also made in quantities. The articles for commercial exchanges are very limited, and consist less of manufactures than of rude produce. With the Levant the intercourse is still considerable. Imp. These are from France, England, Switzerland, and Germany. From England they consist of coffee, sugar, and other colonial produce; muslins, linens, calicoes, woollens, hardware, and dye-stuffs; also fish, dried and salted, for diet on the numerous days of abstinence from butcher-meat enjoined by the Catholic creed. Commerce is active; but business is much impeded by the high tariffs in many of the states, and by the lines of custom-houses. The mercantile marine of Italy is more numerous, in proportion to the extent of the country, than that of any other nation in Europe, England excepted. Rel. The established religion is the Roman Catholic; but all other sects are tolerated. Italy alone has very nearly one-half as many bishoprics as there are in the whole of Europe-256 out of 535. The regular and secular clergy of both sexes count in Italy 189,000; and they are, as compared with the number of the population, as 1 to 142. The clergy are more numerous in Sicily than in any other part of Italy, or perhaps in the world; the number of priests, monks, or nuns being 33,266, or 1 out of 69 inhabitants. Journalism. There are nearly 300 journals published in Italy, of which number 117 are in the Sardinian states, although they contain only one-fifth of the total population. With great intelligence, the Italians are passionately fond of music; and nothing is more common than to hear the finest airs of Metastasio sung in the streets with correctness and harmony. Pop. 27,107,047. Italy is one of the countries in which the largest cities and towns are to be found, 19 of them having more than 50,000 inhabitants, and 8-Rome, Naples, Palermo, Venice, Florence, Milan, Genoa, and Turin-exceed 100,000. Lat. between 37° and 47° N. Lon. between 6° 21' and 13° 40′ E. This is the Italia of the ancients, and received its name from Italus, a king of the country, who came from Arcadia; or from italos, a Greek word which signifies an ox,' an animal very common in that part of Europe. It has been called the garden of Europe. The ancient inhabitants called themselves Aborigines, offspring of the soil,' and the country was soon after peopled by colonies from Greece. It was originally divided into as many different governments as there were towns, till the rapid increase of the Roman power changed the face of it. It has been the mother of arts as well as of arms.

ITAMARCA, e-ta-mar-ka, an island of Brazil, in the province of Pernambuco, separated from the mainland by a narrow channel, long known as the river Santa Cruz. Ext. 12 miles long, and 3 broad. Desc. Fertile, and producing cotton and sugar-cane in considerable quantities. It has also extensive salt-works and some rum-distilleries. The capital is of the same name, and faces the mainland. Pop. 8,000.

ITAPARUA, e'-ta-pa-roo-a, an island of Brazil, 23 miles from Bahia. Ext. 24 miles long, with a breadth of 8 at its widest part. The island abounds with cocoatrees. Pop. Unascertained.

ITAPICURU, e'-ta-pe-koo-roo, two rivers of Brazil, the one rising in the mountains of Jacobina, and, after a course of 350 miles, falling into the Atlantic about 100 miles from Bahia; the other rising in the province of Maranhao, and, after a course of 500 miles, falling into the Atlantic, 20 miles from Maranhao.

ITATA, e-ta'-ta, a province of Chili, bounded N. by Maule, E. by Chillan, W. by the Pacific Ocean, and S. by Puchacay. Ext. About 60 miles long, and 30 broad. Pop. Unascertained. The capital is Coulemu, situate in lat. 36° 2' S.

ITATA, a river of the above province, rising on the W. slope of the Chilian Andes, and, after a course of 150 miles, falling into the sea, in lat. 36° S.

ITHACA, OF THIAKI, ith'-a-ka, one of the Ionian

Ivan

Islands, in the Gulf of Patras, between the W. coast of Greece and Cephalonia. Ext. 12 miles long, by broad, except in the middle, where it is nearly divided by the Gulf of Molo. Desc. It has always been noted for its rugged and barren aspect. Pro. Olives, cur. rants, corn, almonds, oranges, honey, and wine. The inhabitants, however, derive the greatest portion of their sustenance from the sea, being mostly fishermen. Pop. 10,000. Lat. 38° 30' N. Lon. 20° 39' E, ITHACA, a post-town in Ulysses, and the capital of Tompkins county, New York, U.S., at the bottom of Cayuga Lake, 180 miles from Albany. It has a courthouse, a gaol, a flourishing academy, and a lyceum. Pop. 6,000.

ITSHILL. (See ADANA.)

ITU, e'-too, a town of Brazil, 50 miles from Sao-Paulo. The greater number of its houses are constructed of a framework of wood, with the interstices filled up with mud or earth. Its principal buildings are several churches, two convents, an infirmary, and various schools. The soil in the district in which it stands is fertile, and sugar-cane is extensively cultivated. Pop. 10,000.

ITUCAMBRIA, e'-too-kam-bre-a, a river of Brazil, rising in the Serra de Santo Antonio, and, after a course of 130 miles, falling into the Jaquitinhonha, Gold is found in its sands.

ITURUP, or STATEN ISLAND, it'-u-rup, one of the largest and most important of the Kurile Islands, in the N. Pacific, where the Japanese have a settlements Ext. 140 miles long, with an average breadth of 20, Desc. Fertile, and of volcanic origin. Agriculture was introduced into it by the Japanese; but the natives chiefly live upon the produce of the chase and the fisheries. Pop. Unascertained. Lat. 44° 29′ N. Lon. 146° 34' E.

ITZEHOE, it'-sai-ho, a town of Denmark, in Holstein, on the Stor, 32 miles from Hamburg. It consists of an old and new town, connected by a long bridge, Its principal public buildings are the parish church, an hospital, several other benevolent institutions, a statehouse, in which the provincial assemblies of Hol stein are held, and various schools. Manf. Cards, candles, tobacco, soap, hats, leather, chicory, and vinegar. Pop. 6,000. This is the oldest town in the duchy, and a steamboat plies from it weekly to Hamburg.

IVAN I., Danilovitch, e'-van, succeeded Alexander II. in 1328, in the principalities of Vladimir, Moscow, and Novgorod, and reigned during twelve years, with the title of grand-duke of Moscow. He subsequently en tered an ecclesiastical order. D. 1340.

He

IVAN II. reigned between the years 1353-59. was a mild and wise ruler, and combated with success against the Tartars.

IVAN III., Vasilivitch, reigned from 1462 to 1505. He delivered his country from the Tartars in 1481, brought all the provinces of Russia under his sway, and took possession of Novgorod after a seven years' siege. He introduced the arts of civilization into his dominions. His second wife was Sophia, niece of the last Byzantine emperor. Ivan was the first to adopt the title of czar, having for his arms the double-headed eagle of Constantinople.

IVAN IV., surnamed the Terrible, ascended the throne at the age of 4 years, in 1533. His mother was appointed regent, and sustained, in his name, a great struggle against the nobles of the kingdom. He attained his majority in 1544, and made war against the Poles, the Swedes, and the Tartars, all of whom were in turn vanquished. He committed numberless cruelties upon these peoples, as well as upon his own subjects. He killed with his own hand his eldest son; but his reign_was marked by a great advance in civilization. He definitively adopted the title of czar," and added to it that of "autocrat." B. 1529; D. 1584.

IVAN V., Alexovitch, succeeded to the throne on the death of his brother, Feodor Alexiowitz, in 1682. But being of weak intellect, he was placed in a monastery, and the sceptre given to his brother Peter. The Princess Sophia, hoping to reign in the room of Ivan, excited an insurrection, which ended by the appointment of Ivan and Peter joint sovereigns, and Sophia co-regent. This government lasted six years, when

Jabbee

lished in Latin by Pocock, at Oxford, in 1671, and in English by Ockley, in 1708. D. about 1198.

JABBEE, jab-be, a considerable town of Bambarra, in Western Africa, on the Niger, 55 miles from Sego. Pop. Unascertained.

JABEN, ja-bain, a town of Spain, in the province of Valencia, 48 miles from Alicante. It is walled, and has a church, several chapels, a town-house, prison, and various schools. Grapes and silkworms are extensively grown and reared in the neighbourhood. Pop. 3,700.

JABLONSKI, Theodore, ya-blons'-ke, counsellor of the court of Prussia, and secretary of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin. He published- "A French and German Dictionary," 1711; "A Course of Morality," 1713; and "A Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences." D. about 1740.

JACA, or JACCA, ja'-ka, a fortified town of Spain, in Aragon, 32 miles from Huesca. It has several gates and a citadel, a handsome cathedral, different chapels, convents, a prison, barracks, an hospital, and various schools. Manf. Linen and hempen fabrics, soap, leather, earthenware, and white wax. Pop. 3,200.

JACARCHI, ja-kar-she, a town of Brazil,50 miles from Sao Paulo. It has a considerable trade in tobacco and coffee. Pop. 7,000.

JACI, or JACI D'AQUILA, ya'-che, a maritime town of Sicily, in the Val di Demona, not more than 12 miles from the summit of Mount Etna. It is situate on the Acis. Manf. Principally linens. Pop. 11,000.

JACKSON, Thomas, juk'-son, a learned divine, who became president of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, and dean of Peterborough. His chief work was a "Commentary on the Apostles' Creed." B. at Durham, 1573; D. 1640.

JACKSON, Arthur, a nonconformist divine, who was ejected from the living of St. Faith's, in London, in 1662. He was fined £500 for refusing to give evidence against Christopher Love, and also imprisoned. At the Restoration he was chosen by the assembly of ministers to present a bible to Charles II. He was also one of the commissioners at the Savoy conference. He wrote a judicious Commentary on the Bible. D. 1666.

JACKSON, John, an English divine, who received his education at Jesus College, Cambridge. He obtained the rectory of Rossington, in Yorkshire, and the mastership of Wigston's Hospital, in Lancashire. He was an acute metaphysician, but a zealous advocate for Arianism, and wrote some tracts against the doctrine of the Trinity, and others against Collins and Tindal; but his best work is his "Chronological Antiquities," published in 2 vols. 4to, 1752. B. at Lensey, Yorkshire, 1686; D. 1768.

JACKSON, William, a musical composer and ingenious writer. Having received a liberal education, he was placed under the tuition of the organist of Exeter Cathedral, and afterwards with Mr. Travers, an eminent musician in London. In 1777 he was appointed organist in the cathedral of his native city. He published many excellent songs, canzonets, hymns, and sonatas, of his own composition. His chief literary productions were, "Thirty Letters on various Subjects," "On the Present State of Music," and "The Four Ages," 8vo. One of Mr. Jackson's sons was secretary to Lord Macartney in his embassy to China; another was ambassador to the king of Sardinia, and afterwards at Paris and Berlin. B. at Exeter, 1730; D. at the same place, 1803.

JACKSON, Andrew, an American general and president, was the son of an Irishman, who emigrated to America in 1765. At the breaking out of the War of Independence, he was studying theology in the Waxhaw Academy; but this evert made himself and his two brothers soldiers. On the termination of the war with the mother country, he resolved to study the law, but abandoned it after a short time to resume his military career, fighting, on this occasion, against the Indians on the frontiers of the civilized settlements. In 1797 he was chosen senator, and shortly afterwards was appointed by the legislature of Tennessee majorgeneral of the forces of that state. Up to the year 1812 he resided upon his farm at Nashville, on the Cumberland River; but on the renewal of hostilities between England and America in that year, he put

Jacob

himself at the head of some three thousand volunteers, and took up a defensive position in the lower country of the Mississippi. In 1814 the United States govern ment conferred the rank of major-general upon him, and the next year he repulsed the British forces in their attack on New Orleans. For several subsequent years he commanded expeditions against the Indians, displaying both cruelty and recklessness in some of his proceedings. In 1821 he was nominated governor of the newly-acquired state of Florida; and, after holding it for a year, was again elected to represent the state of Tennessee in the senate. Jackson was elected president in 1828, and again in 1832. B. at Waxhaw, South Carolina, 1767; D. at Nashville, Tennessee, 1845. JACKSON, the name of numerous places in the United States, with populations ranging between 1,000 and 12,000 JACKSON, PORT. (See SYDNEY.)

JACKSON'S RIVER, a head-water of James's River, in Virginia, joined by Carpenter's Creek, and receiving the name of Fluvannah river. It is noted for a fall of 200 feet.

JACOB, jail-kob, the son of Isaac and Rebecca, whose sons were founders of the twelve tribes of Israel. He was the favourite of his mother, by whose advice he imposed upon his father, and obtained his blessing, having before taken an advantage of Esau, by pur chasing his birthright. To avoid his brother's fury, he fled to Padanaram, where he resided with his uncle Laban, whom he served fourteen years for his daugh ters Leah and Rachel. He afterwards returned to Canaan with great wealth, and a reconciliation took place between him and his brother Esau. His name was altered to Israel by an angel; whence his posterity have been called Israelites. He lived to the age of 147 years. B. 1993 B.C.; D. in the landof Goshen, 1846 B.C.

JACOB, Henry, a learned divine, was educated at Oxford, where he took his degree of M.A., after which he obtained a living. He wrote some treatises against the Brownists or Puritans, and a work on the sufferings of Jesus Christ. B. 1561; D. 1621.

He

JACOB, Henry, son of the above, was educated under Erpenius, and acquired a considerable knowledge of the Oriental languages. On his return to England, he entered of Merton College, Oxford, of which he became fellow, but was deprived of this in the civil wars. wrote some works, which were never printed; but Wood ascribes to him the "Delphi Phæniciantes," published by Dickenson. B. 1608; D. at Canterbury, 1652.

JACOB, Giles, an industrious English lawyer, who published, among a great variety of works, a Law Dictionary, and the "Lives and Characters of English Poets." B. 1690; D. 1744.

JACOB, Ben Naphthali, a learned Jew of the 5th century, was educated in the school of Tiberius, in Palestine. The invention of the Masoretic points and accents is ascribed to him and Ben Aser.

JACOB, a Cistercian monk of Hungary, who quitted his order in 1212, under pretence of being called to deliver the Holy Land from the infidels. He gathered together a prodigious number of fanatics in Germany and France, who being chiefly peasants, obtained the name of the Shepherds. When St. Louis, king of France, was taken by the Saracens, Jacob pretended that the holy Virgin had commanded him to preach a crusade for his deliverance. The queen for some time tolerated this extravagance, but at last she caused the rabble to be dispersed, and Jacob was, shortly after, slain by a butcher.

JACOB, John, the distinguished commander of the Scinde Horse. His first appointment was to the Bom bay artillery, which he entered in 1827, and with this corps, composed not of natives, but of Europeans, he passed his first seven years of service. At the expi ration of this period he was intrusted with a small detached command, comprising a company of native artillery and a field battery; after which essay of his powers, he proceeded, in the usual way of Indian promotion, to assume civil instead of military duties, and served for a short time in the provincial administration of Guzerat. From these employments, however, he was soon summoned by the outbreak of war; and he participated, as an artillery officer, in the perils and glories of the Affghan campaign. He did not, however,

Jacob

accompany the expedition all the way to Cabul; for, before the disastrous retreat from that city had been consummated, he received his appointment in the peculiar sphere of duty with which his name has been inseparably connected from that hour to the day of his death. In the year 1839, when all north-western India was in a ferment, it was determined to raise some squadrons of irregular horse for service in those parts; and the idea had been so far developed, that some 500 swarthy cavaliers stood enrolled, in 1841, as the Scinde Horse. This regiment was afterwards augmented, and Colonel Outram, perceiving Jacob's abilities, selected the young artillery lieutenant for the chief command. The campaigns and conquest of Scinde offered, of course, the most admirable opportunities for further distinction; and, on the field of Meanee, Jacob's Horse, and Jacob himself, established a name which was never afterwards sullied or obscured. After Scinde had been annexed, it became necessary to protect it as a frontier province, and, in this service, à prominent part was assigned to the Scinde Horse. Owing partly to the anomalous character of the territorial government, and partly, no doubt, to the confidence reposed in Jacob's personal abilities, the Scinde Horse were left almost entirely to themselves. The results soon became most remarkable. From a few troops, the force was gradually expanded till it included two strong regiments, and mustered 1,600 of the best horsemen in India, the commander of the whole being Brigadier Jacob, assisted by four Europeans and a number of native officers. But, although formidable to those whose occupation was rapine and plunder, Jacob was a benefactor to the people over whom he virtually ruled. On the spot where his troops had encamped, which was a sterile waste for miles around, Jacob, in less than thirteen years, had built a village containing 30,000 people, and the district was transformed into one fertile garden. This city was called Jacobabad. It was here that he ruled, wrote, made experiments in gunnery, and invented the valuable rifle called after his name. But, although still a young man, he, in the year 1858, gave sudden signs of a break-up of constitution. The ardent soldier had exhausted even his iron frame; a brainfever ensued, and in a few days he was carried off. B. 1813; D. at Jacobabad, 1858.

JACOB, Ben Haim, a rabbi of the 16th century, who published a collection of the Masora at Venice, in 1525, in 4 vols., with the text of the Bible, a work greatly esteemed by the Jews.

JACOB, Al Bardai, a disciple of Severus, patriarch of Constantinople. He was one of the principal leaders of the Eutychians; on which account that sect gained the name of Jacobites.

JACOBEUS, Oliger, ju-ko-be'-us, a Danish physician, who became professor of philosophy and physic at Copenhagen. He wrote a compendium of Medicine, and a number of Latin poems. B. in the isle of Jutland, 1650; D. at Copenhagen, 1707.

Jaddus

tional Assembly: all the questions and resolutions which this party intended to move in the senate, were previously discussed in the club. Robespierre was for a long time its chief. This club was the principal instigator of the sanguinary measures of the Reign of Terror; but, with the fall of Robespierre, its power declined, and it was finally abolished on the 21st Brumaire, year III. of the republic (November 11, 1794). JACOBITES, jak'-o-bites, the title given to the partisans of James II. and his son in England, after the revolution of 1688.

JACOBS, Jurian, jai'-kobs, a painter of the Flemish school. He was the disciple of Francis Snyders, whose manner he imitated. In his historical pieces he introduced animals, painted in a masterly manner. Switzerland, 1610; D. 1664.

B. in

JACOMB, Thomas, jai'-komb, a nonconformist divine, who was educated at Magdalen Hall, Oxford, and afterwards at Cambridge, where he became fellow of Trinity College. In 1647 he removed to London, and had the living of St. Martin, Ludgate, of which he was deprived for noncorformity in 1662. He was then taken into the family of the countess of Exeter. He wrote several theological works. B. in Leicestershire, 1622; D. 1687. JACOPONE, Da Todi, ya-ko-po'-nai, an old Italian poet, celebrated for his "Sacred Canticles," and for being the author of the " Stabat Mater." His Canticles were printed at Venice in 1617. D. 1306.

JACQUARD, Joseph Marie, juk'-ard, a celebrated mechanician and inventor of the Jacquard loom. He was the son of a poor weaver, and is said to have had no school education, having taught himself to read and write. From an early age he evinced a great aptitude for mechanical studies. After having inherited his father's looms and stock in trade, he, for some time, worked as a weaver; but was subsequently compelled to sell all his working apparatus, having contracted many debts through his unfortunate experiments in weaving, cutlery, and type-founding. He served with the republican army in the defence of Lyons and on the Rhine; but afterwards returned to his native city, and applied himself energetically to perfect the splendid piece of mechanism which bears his name, and which is universally employed. B. at Lyons, 1752; D. at Ouillins, near Lyons, 1834.

JACQUELOT, Isaac, zhak'-lo, a learned French Protestant, was the son of a minister at Vassy. At the age of 21 he became assistant to his father; but, on the revocation of the edict of Nantes, he went to Heidelberg, and thence to the Hague. The king of Prussia invited him to his capital, where he became his majesty's chaplain, and had a pension. He wrote "Dissertations on the Existence of God," three pamphlets against Bayle's Dictionary, "Dissertations on the Messiah," "A Treatise on the Inspiration of the Scriptures," "Letters to the Bishops of France," Sermons, a work against Socinianism, &c. B. 1647;

D. 1708.

D. 1819.

JACOBINA, ja-ko-be'-na, a town of Brazil, 210 miles from Bahia. It has a parish church, other churches, and several schools. In its neighbourhood are grown rice, millet, tobacco, and various fruits, which thrive admirably. Pop. of the district, 10,000, supported principally by agricultural produce and a trade in cattle, sheep, and goats.

JACOBINS, CLUB of the, jak'-o-bins, a popular society, formed at Versailles in 1789. It was at first called the Breton Club, having been founded by those deputies of the National Assembly who came from Brittany It was afterwards removed to Paris, where, taking up its quarters in an old Jacobin convent, it was henceforth called the Jacobin Club. At its head were found the most powerful of the opposition party in the Na

JACQUET, Louis, zha'-kai, a French writer and ecclesiastic, who wrote an ingenious parallel between the Greek and French tragic poets, and some prize essays, which were rewarded by the academy of Besançon. He was an enthusiastic admirer of Rousseau, whose disposition and manners he greatly resembled. B. at Lyons, 1732; D. 1793.

JADDUS, jad'-dus, high priest of the Jews, who, when Alexander the Great intended to pillage Jerusalem and the temple, went to meet him in his pontifical habits, and the sight so struck the victor, that he fell