Bradshaw's illustrated hand-book to Italy

The Apennines, or "Monti Appennini," begin in the Maritime Alps, hug the coast of the Riviera, near Genoa, and from thence run down the middle of the peninsula, to the end of Calabria; a total length of 800 miles. Average height, 2,000 to 6,000 feet. Highest points are Monte Carno, or Corno, or "Gran Sasso," near Aquila, 9,580 feet high; Monte Majella, near Celano, 9,150 feet high; Monte Sibilia, near Tolentino, 7,000 feet; Monte Cimone, near Pistoja, 6,975. At the back of Genoa, where they are only 2,560 feet high, they take the name of the Ligurian Apennines, and form the south border of the plain of Lombardy. Some of the Passes are-Pontremoli, 3,420 feet; Collina or Pracchia, 3,350 feet; Pietra Mala, on the old Florence Road, 4,100 feet; and others near Borgo Sepolcro, Fabriano, &c., of less importance. The Apennines are generally limestone, covered with grass, but without trees, except chestnuts here and there. Mount Etna is 10,875 feet high; Vesuvius, 3,880 feet.

Volcanoes.-Traces of volcanic matter are found nearly all over Italy. In the North, near Vicenza, Padua, and the Euganean Hills; in Tuscany, and the soil about Rome, especially in the Campagna; and round Naples, where Vesuvius has for ages been in a state of activity. It threw out a new crater in 1865. Etna, in Sicily, threw out some about the same time; and Stromboli, which is always smoking, was also affected. The peak of Ischia is an extinct volcano. In July, 1831, a submarine volcano, called Graham's Shoal, Isle Julia, &c., appeared above the sea, off Sicily, and disappeared the same year. Sir Walter Scott

landed on it.

Rivers.-The principal rivers of Italy are the Po, Arno, and the Tiber (Tevere). The Po rises in the Alps and Apennines, and runs to the Adriatic, by a course of about 407 miles. Its affluents are the Tanaro (fed by the Stura and Bormida), Trebbia, Taro, Parma, Secchia, and Reno, on the right or south bank; the Clusone, Doria-Riparia, DoriaBaltea, Sesia, Ticino (from Lago Maggiore, &c.), Olona, Lambro, Adda (from the Valtellina), Oglio (from L. Iseo), and Mincio (from L. Garda), on the north bank. Near the Po are the Adige, Bacchiglione, Brenta, Piave, Tagliamento, &c., which rise in the Alps and runs into or near to the lagoons of Venice.

All the other rivers have their source in the Apennines, and are for the most part mountain torrents. The Arno runs by Florence and Pisa, to Leghorn. The Tiber, about 245 miles long, runs by Perugia, Orte, and Rome. The Secchia runs past Lucca. The Garigliano and Volturno run into the Gulf of Gaëta; and some smaller streams, of little note, into the Gulfs of Salerno and Taranto. On the Adriatic side are the Ofanto, Pescara, Trento, Chienti, Metauro, Rubicon and many others, from 20 to 50 miles long, which make almost a straight course from the slope of the Apennines down to the sea.

Baths and Mineral Waters.-At Caldiero Val

dieri, near Turin; Acqui; Abano mud baths; Porretta, Lucca, Volterra, Solfatara, Ischia, &c. Islands.-The two largest islands are Sardinia and Sicily.

Elba, between the Tuscan Coast and Corsica, with its neighbours, Capraja, Gorgona, Pianosa, Monte Cristo, Giglio, Gianatri. Another Capraja, or Caprera, between Corsica and Sardinia, was the residence of Garibaldi till his death, 1882.

Off the Gulf of Gaëta-Ponza, Palmarola, Zanone, Ventolene, &c.

In the Bay of Naples-Ischia, Procida, Capri. Lipari Islands-Lipari, Stromboli, Volcano, Filicuri, Alicuri, Saline, &c.

Ustica is off Palermo.

Egati Islands-Off Marsala, including Levanzo, Maritimo, Favignano.

Pantellaria, between Sicily and Africa.

The Tremiti Islands, with Pianosa, Pelegosa, &c., off the Gargano Promontory, are the only islands of any consequence in the Adriatic.

Corsica is annexed to France, and Malta to England.

Coast Line.-Estimated at 3,350 miles, onefourth of which belongs to the islands. In this respect Italy has an advantage over France or Spain, and holds a position which qualifies it to become a first-rate maritime power, and to command the Mediterranean. The scenery of the Riviera, or shore of the Gulf of Genoa, of the Bay of Naples, and the Straits of Messina, is proverbial for beauty.

Principal Ports.-Turin, Genoa, Spezia (Royal Dockyard), Leghorn, Civita Vecchia, Naples, Palermo, Messina, Ancona, and Venice.

Lakes.-Lago-Laghi-Under the Alps are Lago Maggiore, Orta, Varese, Lugano, Como, Lecco, Iseo, and Garda, all remarkable for the rich character of the surrounding scenery. In Central ItalyThrasymene, Bolsena, and Bracciano, shallow and uninteresting, except for their historical associations. In the Apennines-Celano or Fusino, now drained. On the east side-Lesina and Varano.

Plains. -The Great Plain of Lombardy, the "pleasant garden of fair Italy," in the north; the Campagna, near Rome, remarkable for its herds of buffaloes, &c.; and Campania, towards Naples, both on the west coast; with the plain of Foggia, on the east side, on which vast flocks of sheep are pastured. In summer they are driven up the Apennines.

Winds.-The eight principal winds are:-
N.-Tramontana ("across the mountains ").
N.E.-Greco.

E.-Levante ("Sun Rising ").
S.E.-Sirocco, the hot wind.

Of any thing

dull, the Italians say "Era scritto in tempo dell
sirocco." (It was written in sirocco weather).
S.-Mezzogiorno ("Midday ").

S.W.-Libeccio ("Libyan, or African).
W.-Ponente ("Sun Setting ").

N.W.-Maestro (the "Master;" called "Mistral," at Marseilles and elsewhere).

Products. Among the chief products are:Iron, lead, Sicilian sulphur, Carrara marble. Corn, in Sicily, &c.; rice, in the plain of Lombardy; olive oil, about Florence, Naples, &c.; oranges and lemons, in the Riviera, &c.; cotton, sugar, figs, and other fruits, in South Italy and Sicily. Abundance of iron in Sardinia and Elba.

Cotton.-From Salerno to Torre del Greco, at Terranova, Paterno, &c., about 10,000 bales are raised. The total quantity for Italy and Sicily is 80,000 bales.

Silk. The value of cocoons in 1886 was £5,144,500; the yield in raw silk, 5,345,000 lb. The number employed in winding off was-men, 4,839; women, 81,165; children, 25,373.

The Metayer system is very common in Italy; that is, the produce of the farm is divided equally

between the tenant and the landlord who receives his half for rent. Land is much divided; but many small owners are worse off than labourers.

Manufactures.-Silks, woollen, gauzes, porcelain, artificial flowers, printed cottons, hats, wax matches.

A more complete notion of Italian products will be obtained from a list of articles shown at the International Exhibition of 1862:-Lead and copper, from Palanza, near Novara. Iron, from Bard, in Val d'Aosta. Copper, from Bisano, near Bologna; and from Ollomont, near Aosta. Sulphur, from Trapani and Bologna. Slate, from Chiavari, near Genoa. Statuary marble, from Fivizzano, in Massa-Carrara. Manganese, from Fontanaccio, near Lucca. Antimony and lead, from Cagliari. Steel, from Lovere, near Bergamo; and copper and lead, from Valsassina. Mineral and marble, from Messina. Statuary marble, from Monte Altessimo, near Florence-once worked by Michael Angelo. Borax, from the Lagoons, near Volterra. Mineral deposits, from the Baths of Lucca. Rice, from Novara, Imola, &c. Figs, raisins, almonds, olives, &c., from Trani. Indian corn, from Arezzo. Pistachio nuts, from Cagliari. Pickled olives, smoked mullet, salted eels, honey, &c., from Oristano. Tobacco, from Messina. Gin and spirit, extracted from the arbutus. Wax, from Savona. Olive oil, from Florence, Genoa, Bari, Calabria, &c. Coral, from the coast of Sardinia. Raw silk and cocoons, from Parma. Merino wool, from Grosseto. Bark, sumach, castor-oil, &c., from Cagliari. Castor-oil, from Trani. Hemp, from Ferrara. Cotton, from Cosenza and Trani. Cotton stuffs, fustians, damask, woollen, yarn, and hats, from Milan. Floss silk, from Lucca. Organzine and yelvet, made at Turin. Galoon and silk ribbons, at Portici, near Naples. Straw plait and buffalo hides, from Leghorn. Bonnets, from Parma and Teramo. Gloves, from Naples. Chairs, from Chiavari.

Rice,

Indian corn, sorgho, bamboo cane, sugar cane, &c., from Florence. Collection of 121 siliceous stones employed in the Pietre Dure mosaics, made at the Royal Factory, Florence. Brooches, in scagliola, in imitation of Florentine mosaics, from

Leghorn. Pistol and gun barrels, and cutlery, from Brescia. Cutlery, from Campobasso. Coral necklaces, brooches, &c., from Naples; and red coral work from Trapini, Sicily. Doccia Porcelain, and imitation Majolica and Della Robbia ware, from the Ginori works, Florence. Porcelain, from Faenza. Coloured mosaics, from Venice.

Smalts from the mosaic manufactory, at the Vatican. Indian corn, from the Pontine Marshes. Inlaid tables and pavements, in imitation marbles, breccia, &c. Statuary, from Rome.

Wine.-From Campobasso, Asti, Cesena, Montalcino, Flumini (near Cagliari), Cosenza, Trani, Siena, Comacchio, Chiavari, Sondrio, Imola, Marsala (Sicily), Benevento, Ornano, Isola, Acqui, Reggio (in the Emilia), Caluso, Messina, Lucca, Naples, Genoa, Salerno, Parma, Ferrara, Orvieto, Rieti, and other places. Annual quantity of wine, about 350,000,000 gallons. The Muscat wine of Sardinia is imported to the North of Europe. About Florence the country is a "mass of orchards," producing oil and wine. Usually, in Italy, the vine is trained to elms and poplars, in festoons.

"After having tested the growths from various qualities, I must say I have not seen one that is fine. Vino d'Asti is praised, but very undeservedly, I think. Lacryma Christi is usually coarse in taste and flavour. Montepulciano, so highly praised by Redi, is sweet, but not to be compared to Frontignan or Rivesaltes. Throughout the whole country wines are made; and better qualities could not be produced in any part of Europe; but where wine is so abundant that all may drink it, little money value is attached to it, and it is consequently neglected. Good wine demands skill, experience, patience, and capital. Influential Italians are now directing their attention to this source of wealth, and, if they desire to gain a reputation, would do well to get some intelligent vine-growers, wine-makers, and cellarmen from France and Germany."-T. G. SHAW's Wine, the Vine, and the Cellar.

Climate.--Extremely various as indicated by the mean temperature, ranging from 55° at Milan and Venice, to 60° at Rome, and 63° at Palermo. Dr. Lee says "In the plains of Calabria, and in Sicily, which lie between the 37th and 39th degrees of latitude, the thermometer rarely descends below freezing point; whereas between the 43rd and 46th degrees, as in the higher parts of Lombardy, it frequently descends to 10° below zero, which is an immense difference for a distance of 6° to 9°. A corresponding difference is observable in the productions of the earth-from the pine of the north, to the palm tree and plants indigenous to warmer latitudes, as also in the physical and moral qualities of the various populations."

Another characteristic of the climate is the general diffusion of Malaria. "Italy contains, in proportion to its extent, more marshes than any other country in Europe. Many of them, moreover, are salt water marshes, being upon, or close to, the seashore; and their insalubrity always bears a direct

ratio to the prevailing humidity, heat, and siroccal ventilation." When, in addition to these circumstances, we take into consideration "the extent of submerged or irrigated land; the beds of numerous rivers occasionally overflowing, at other times more or less dry; the lakes, the lagunes, &c.; there will be no grounds for surprise at the quantity of rain which annually falls, or at the partially existing malaria in the summer and autumnal seasons.'

Dr. Lee adds, "The transition from spring to summer is frequently abrupt in Italy. In May the sun acquires considerable power. The great heats prevail from the middle of June to the middle of September. At this period it rains only occasionally, and during the prevalence of storms. The ground is usually parched, and the roads laid thick with dust. The towns in the interior, as Milan, Florence, &c., are generally hotter than those on the sea-coast, where the heat is somewhat tempered by the sea breeze." This daily sea breeze blows from noon to sunset, and its influence is felt for miles up the valleys.

"If you wish to keep your health in Italy," says the author of Roba di Roma, "follow the example of the Italians. Eat a third less than you are accustomed to at home. Do not drink habitually of brandy, porter, ale, or even Marsala, but confine yourself to the lighter wines of the country, or of France. Do not walk much in the sun; only Englishmen and dogs do that, as the proverb goes; and especially take heed not to expose yourself when warm to any sudden change of temperature. If you have heated yourself with walking in the sun, be careful not to go out at once, and especially towards nightfall, into the lower and shaded streets which have begun to gather the damps, and are kept cool by the high thick walls of the houses." Buy a skull cap to put on your head when you enter the churches and cold galleries. With this precaution, and by taking care to cool yourself before entering such buildings, or on coming into a house, and generally not to expose yourself to sudden changes, "you may live for twenty years in the country without a fever. Shut your windows when you go to bed. The night air is invariably damp and cold, contrasting greatly with the warmth of the day; and it is then that miasma drifts in upon the sleeper. Do not indulge in ices and cold drinks.'

Language.-The "Italian" language is the Tuscan, as written and spoken by its educated population, especially at Florence and Rome, and as shaped and polished by the great writers of the fourteenth century, or Trecentisti (or "threecentury men," as the Italians say), viz., Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio, Sacchetti, Villani; succeeded by Lorenzo de' Medici, Pulci, Bojardo, in the fifteenth century, or Italian quattrocentisti; and by Machiavelli, Guicciardini, Ariosto, Bembo, Vasari, B. Cellini, Guarini, Tasso, Bandello, called Cinque centisti, or sixteenth century writers. The prin

The Italians call this century the 18th, not 19th; hence their 13th century is our 14th, as above.

| cipal dialects are the Milanese, Venetian, Paduan or Lombard, Mantuan, Piedmontese, Genoese, Bolognese. Neapolitan, Calabrian, Sicilian, and Sardinian (or Island dialect). A few useful words and phrases are given in the Vocabulary at the end of the Special Edition of Bradshaw's Continental Guide.

ANCIENT DIVISIONS OF ITALY.

The North of Italy, above the River Macra (now Magra), near Spezia and the Rubicon, near Rimini (both about latitude 44°), was called Gallia Citerior or Gallia Cisalpina. The remainder of the Peninsula, to the South, or Italia proper, was styled Ausonia, Hesperia, &c., by the poets.

Cisalpine Gaul was divided into Cispadana and Transpadana, by the Padus (Po) or Eridanus; and more particularly as follows:-1. LIGURIA-containing Genoa and Nice. 2. TAURINA-About Turin, Aosta, &c. 3. INSUBRES-Milan; Pavia, where Charles V. defeated Francis I. 4. CENOMANNIBrescia, Cremona, and Mantua, near the birthplace of Virgil. 5. EUGANEI-Verona, the birthplace of Catullus. 6. VENETI-Padua, where Livy was born; Aquileia, Friuli. Venice (named after this province), had no real existence till the destruction of Aquileia, A.D. 452. 7. LINGONESRavenna, where the emperor kept his court, and also Theodoric, the Goth, after defeating Odoacer. 8. Bo-Bologna, Modena, Parma, Piacenza.

The ancient divisions of Italy proper were:-9. ETRURIA, between the Magra and Tiber, from which Napoleon borrowed his name of the shortlived kingdom of Etruria. It contained Lucca, Pisa, Florence, Leghorn, Volterra, Siena, Arezzo; Perugia, near Lake Thrasymene, where Hannibal defeated the Romans for the third time; Clusium, the city of Porsena; Tarquinii, of the Tarquins, Veii, and other Etruscan cities; and Civita Vecchia. 10. UMBRIA-Rimini; Urbino, the birthplace of Raphael; Spoleto; Terni, the birthplace of the Emperor Tacitus, and Tacitus, the historian; Narni, 11. PICENUM-Ancona, Loreto, Ascoli; Sulmo, the birthplace of Ovid; Celano, in the country of the Marsi; Reata, in the country of the Sabines, in which Vespasian was born; Amiternum, the birthplace of Sallust; and Horace's Villa, near Tivoli.

12. LATIUM-Rome, on the Tiber, in the Campagna; Tivoli; Frascati, or Tusculum; Albano, Ostia. 13. CAMPANIA-Capua, on the Volturno; Venafro, Cumæ, Baix, Puteoli, Naples; Pompeii, under Vesuvius; Salerno, and the Islands of Ischia, Procida, and Capri. 14. SAMNIUM, in the Apennines -Benevento, and the Caudine Forks. 15. APULIA -Foggia, Manfredonia; Canosa, near Cannæ, the scene of Hannibal's fourth great victory; Venosa, the birthplace of Horace; and Bari, captured by Robert Guiscard, 1067. 16. CALABRIA (in the heel of the Boot, on the Adriatic side; but the name was afterwards transferred to the toe on the Sicilian side)-Brindisi, or Brundusium, the old port of embarkation for Greece; Otranto, Gallipoli, and Tarento, near the birthplace of Ennius, the poet.

17. LUCANIA (now Basilicata)-Heraclea; Sibaris, the city of the luxurious Sybarites; Pæstum, and its ruins. 18. BRUTII (now Calabria Citra) Cosenza; Scilla or Scylla, opposite Charybdis; Reggio, and Cotrone. The last three provinces, with their flourishing Greek colonies, constituted Magna Græcia.

20. SICILIA (or Trinacria) contained the ancient Greek cities of Messana, or Messina; Catana, or Catania, under Mount Etna; Syracusa, or Syracuse; Agrigentum, or Girgenti; Drepanum, or Trapani, near Marsala; Panormus, or Palermo; Egesta, or Egeste, under Mount Eryx; with the Eolia Insulæ, or Lipari Islands.

III. THE FINE ARTS-CHRONOLOGICAL LISTS, &c.

The Fine Arts reached their greatest perfection in Italy in the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries, when she was most wealthy and prosperous; and when, after a period of darkness and neglect, the remains of earlier times began to be collected and used as models. Vast sums were systematically spent on the churches and palaces, which her best Architects were employed to construct, and her Painters and Sculptors combined to adorn; the three professions being sometimes united in the same person. These edifices still remain; and though Italy is no longer distinguished for producing artists, yet the man of cultivated taste, and the student, will always be attracted by the rich treasures she possesses of past ages, Pagan and Christian, in her public and private buildings, especially at Rome and Florence.

A particular account of them is given under the respective places in the body of the Hand-Book, but a few of the most prominent may be mentioned here.

Painting.-Old mosaics, at Ravenna; St. Mark's, Venice; Monreale, at Palermo.

FRESCOES.-The earliest masters were Cimabue, Margaritone d'Arezzo, Guido, Giunta da Pisa, Giotto, the friend of Dante, S. Memmi, Giottini, Orcagna, Solari, Fra Angelico, Squarcione, &c., who executed the frescoes still existing at Siena, Florence, Pisa, Assisi, Arezzo, Ravenna, Bologna, Padua, and Rome.

Oil painting was discovered, or perfected, by Van Eyck, called John of Bruges (Giovanni da Brugia), and his pupil, Ruggieri. Antonello da Messina is also claimed as a discoverer or reviver. Sir C. Eastlake places the oldest oil painting at Florence about 1460.

These early painters were succeeded by other masters, in frescoes and oils, who, under the patronage of the Italian princes, founded various schools, marked by differences of style and colour, which are easily apparent to the practised connoisseur.

Schools of Painting.-The principal are named from the places where some of their best works are to be found, as specified in the body of the work.

Genoa-P. del Vaga.

Milan or Lombard-Luini, Procaccini, Caravaggio.

Padua-Mantegna.
Ferrara-Garofalo, D. Dossi.

Mantua-G. Romano, Primaticcio.

Verona-P. Veronese.

Venetian-G. Bellini, C. da Conegliano, Giorgione, S. del Piombo, P. Vecchio, Titian, Moretto, Bordone, Tintoretto, Bassano, Palma Giovane, Padovanino, Canaletto.

Parma-Correggio, Parmegiano.

Bologna-Francia, Fontana, the three Carracci, Barbieri, Guercino, Lanfranco.

Florence-Masaccio, Masolino, F. Lippi, Polla-
juolo, Verocchio, Bronzino.
Siena-Sodoma.

Perugia or Umbrian-Perugino, Raphael.
Roman-M. Angelo, Carracci, Domenichino, F.
Albani, A. Sacchi, Barocci, Cigoli, Allori.

Naples-G. Penni (Fattore), Spagnoletto, S. Rosa,
L. Giordano.

The names of some of the most eminent artists are placed in the chronological list below about the time they flourished.

Specimens of very ancient paintings are to be seen on the walls of the Palace of Titus, at Rome, the houses at Pompeii, and on the Etruscan vases in the Vatican and elsewhere. See Miss Kate Thompson's Picture Galleries of Europe.

Architecture.-The most noticeable specimens are as follows: Turin-Works of Giuvara. Genoa

Works of Alessi, &c. Vercelli Lombard Church. Milan Italian Gothic Cathedral; Church of St. Ambrose. Cremona-Bell Tower. Pavia-Old Gothic Churches; and the Certosa. Brescia-Semi-Gothic buildings. Verona-Duomo, Lombard Churches, the Scaliger Monument, Sanmicheli's Fortresses, Roman Amphitheatre. Vicenza-Works of Palladio. Padua Hall, St. Anthony's Church, Giotti's Church. VeniceSt. Mark's Byzantine Church; Palaces, by Sansovino, Scamozzi, Lombardi. Mantua-Ducal Palace; and works by G. Romano. BolognaLeaning Towers; Churches. Pisa-Cathedral; Leaning Tower; Campo Santo. Ferrara-Cathedral; Palace. Ravenna Byzantine Churches. Florence-Palazzo Vecchio-Pitti Palace; Duomo S. Miniato. Perugia-Churches. Assisi-Church. Siena-Lombard Church. Rome-St. Peter's, and other Basilica Churches. Caserta-Royal Palace. Naples--Cathedral. Palermo-Norman and Saracenic Churches.

Remains of pure Grecian buildings are to be seen at Pæstum, Syracuse, Girgenti, Trapani. Of Roman, at Rome, from the earliest ages of the republic downwards; but especially of the time of the Empire, in the Baths, Colosseum, Pantheon, Tombs.

At Pompeii, are remains of public and domestic buildings and arches. Narni, aqueduct and bridge. Benevento, an arch. Ancona, mole and arch. Capua and Pozzuoli, parts of amphitheatres. Verona, an amphitheatre. Aosta, arch and gate. Very little of what is called in England, Gothic or pointed, is to be found in Italy.

ALPHABETICAL LIST of ITALIAN PAINTERS, SCULPTORS (marked s.), AND ARCHITECTS (marked a); the name by which they are best known being placed first. Names in italics are not the artist's family name.

Albano, F..........