with extracts from their writings, embracing works published during the last twenty-five years of the reign of Queen Elizabeth (1578-1603). These extracts, although presenting no connected and comprehensive view, afford many significant glimpses into the educational methods of England at the period just preceding the English colonization of America, and throw light upon the attitude of the early colonists in Massachusetts, New York, and Virginia regarding education. It is made apparent to what degree they were the product of the environment in which they had grown up in the old country, and that in framing their educational system they either adhered closely to English models or carried into practice ideas which they had brought with them from England.

Religion is frequently and strongly emphasized in these extracts as the essential basis of education. Much stress is laid upon grammar and languages, especially Latin, which appears to have been the most prominent subject of study and instrument of culture. Logic, rhetoric, and other branches of the old scholastic curriculum are held in estimation. Mathematics finds little place in the schemes of study recommended. Mulcaster, who is extensively quoted, makes slight mention of mathematical studies; William Kemp says (1590): "The scholar can easily pass through these arts [arithmetic and geometry] in half a year" (p. 684).

But references to "modern" studies are by no means lacking in these writings, and many recent educational reforms and innovations are distinctly foreshadowed. Arguments setting forth the importance of the study of English are quite frequently met with; the claims of the physical sciences and even agriculture as subjects of study are occasionally presented; systematic physical training, the education of girls, and teachers' conferences have their advocates. It is particularly noticeable that the need of professional training for teachers was recognized at this early period. "This trade," says Mulcaster in 1561 (p. 654), "requireth a particular college."

The low estimation in which the teachers' calling was generally held, as well as the scanty remuneration of those who pursued it, is made a subject of complaint in these writings. It is probably explained by the low average character and slender intellectual acquirements of the teachers themselves. Shakespeare has made us familiar with a certain type of Elizabethan pedagogues in Holofernes. The need of selecting capable teachers of good repute is frequently impressed upon those having the charge of children. The counterpart of much that is said concerning teachers may be found in modern school reports.

Education in Sweden.-Chapter XI (pp. 767-797) is taken up with a general view of the educational system of Sweden, which has been abridged from a more complete account published by the Govern

ment of Sweden in connection with its exhibit at the St. Louis Exposition, and furnished to this Office through the courtesy of Dr. N. G. W. Lagerstedt, royal commissioner for Sweden to the exposition. The school system is a thoroughly modern one, which has been developed on lines adapted to local conditions, and which presents characteristic features and exhibits tendencies that merit the attention of those engaged in the work of school administration. Sweden has both aristocratic and democratic tendencies, the latter now predominating. The campaign waged in that country against the abuse of intoxicating liquors, which has attracted general attention elsewhere, is to be noted as throwing light on the higher aspirations of the Swedish people.

The system of schools, both higher and lower, though based on legislation enacted by the Riksdag, is also subject to executive regulation. No measure of any importance, however, is now inaugurated without the consent of the Riksdag. The schools come under the ecclesiastical department; indeed, the connection between education and the church is very close. The diocesan board (bishops and chapter) superintend all the public schools of each diocese, and to a certain extent the private schools, especially State-aided ones.

The mass of the people receive their education in the common schools. Both the establishment of these schools (at least one in every parish, or district) and attendance upon them are obligatory. The local control is exercised by a board elected by the church assembly (the rector of the parish being president), with a certain degree of supervision by the civil authorities. Teachers are permanent and nonpermanent; the permanent teacher is elected by the church assembly from a list of three candidates nominated by the school board, and must be a graduate of a public normal school (of which there are 13); nonpermanent teachers are employed by the board either for a definite or an indefinite term. In the upper department of the common schools about two-thirds of the teachers are men; in the "infant" department (the two lowest grades) they are almost exclusively women. Teachers are pensioned from public funds (a permanent teacher $200), while the teachers themselves contribute to a fund for widows and orphans.

Attendance begins at 7 years of age. The course is 2 years in the infant department and 4 in the common school proper. The course of instruction is arranged by the school board under the guidance of a "normal plan" issued by the ecclesiastical department, embracing the subjects prescribed by law. These include the usual elementary common school branches; also religion, geography, history, geometry, natural science, drawing, singing, gymnastics, and gardening. Sloyd is optional. The Swedish sloyd system is particularly described on pages 774-775. Some of the larger towns have school kitchens for

instruction in cooking, and baths. The food prepared in the kitchens is used to furnish tree lunches for the poorer pupils.

For those who have passed through the common schools provision is made for more advanced instruction in the common school branches by continuation schools, higher common schools, etc. The so-calied Swedish "people's high schools," course 1 or 2 years, of which there are a few in the country districts (774 pupils in 1900, average age of admission about 20), are of this character, and not high schools as understood in this country. In some of them the second year's course is arranged on the lines of a thorough school of agriculture.

Boys for whom an education is desired beyond that imparted by the common schools, or a preparation for the universities or higher special schools, must have recourse to the secondary schools, of which there are 82 public, with a course following upon a three-years' course in the common schools. The information given in the text of Chapter XI regarding these schools has been in part superseded through a reform measure which passed the Riksdag in 1904, the chief features of which have been communicated to this Office by Doctor Lagerstedt and are given in a footnote to page 784. It appears from this that a completely organized secondary school for boys is hereafter to have a "modern" course of 6 years preparing for practical pursuits, and a course of 9 years preparing for the universities; the two courses have the first 5 years in common; the last 4 years of the university preparatory course (i. e., after the divergence of the two) is known as the "gymnasium," and of these there are two kindsLatin and modern gymnasiums.

The most important feature of the new law, perhaps, is the curtailment of the time given to the ancient classical languages. Hereafter Latin will be studied only during the last 4 years of the course and Greek during the last 2 years-a reduction of 2 years in each case. The time given to Latin had previously been reduced, about 30 years ago, from 8 years to 6. The classical languages are thus being steadily forced into the background. This is also manifested by the smaller number of pupils who study them. In 1875, 85 per cent of all the pupils in the last 4 years studied Latin, in 1901–3 only 47 per cent.

Other important features of the new reform are (1) the institution of a secondary school board, to which are to be transferred affairs hitherto managed by the ministry of education or the chapters of the dioceses, and (2) the authorization of coeducation in public secondary schools, the first instance of the kind in Sweden.

Private secondary boys' schools, or mixed schools, preparing for the universities are only 5 in number, in consequence of the smallness of the fees exacted at the public schools ($8, the yearly maximum).

Two of these schools are coeducational. Private secondary schools for girls are numerous, there being 120 of these, having altogether 13,000 pupils, and all with two exceptions having come into existence since the middle of the last century; 5 prepare for the university entrance examination, taken now yearly by 50 or more girls.

Sweden has two State universities, coming under the ecclesiastical department, and established at Upsala (in 1477) and Lund (in 1668), respectively, both of these places being country towns, as is the case with the two chief university seats in England. Details regarding the government, organization, students, etc., of these universities are given on pages 790-793. It may be noted here that each has four faculties, namely, theology, law, medicine, and philosophy, the latter being divided into the section of humanistics and that of mathematics and natural sciences. The rector is elected by the consistory of professors for 2 years from among the professors in ordinary; the latter are appointed by the Government from among the candidates who present themselves on public notice of vacancy being given, after due consideration of their respective merits and recommendation by the faculty concerned, consistory, and chancellor; or, in case of an eminent scientific man, the appointment may be offered directly without competition. The courses of study are unusually long, 6 to 8 years being required for the degree of licentiate of philosophy, 7 for candidate's degree in law, 9 for same in theology, and 11 for licentiate's degree in medicine; this abnormal length of time results in part from the nonpractical arrangements in regard to teaching, for which a remedy is now being sought by a royal committee.

Besides the two Swedish state universities there are two classed as private, though subject to a measure of Government control; these are the universities of Stockholm (1878) and Gottenborg (1891).

Sweden occupies advanced ground with regard to the education of defective and neglected children. The instruction of the deaf and blind is made obligatory upon the local authorities, as is the case in a few of the States in our own country. The Swedish schools for the deaf are establishments upon a large scale, counting as a rule 100 pupils or more, with newly erected and costly buildings. An institution at Venersborg for blind deaf-mutes is said to be the only one of its kind in the world. It has now 14 pupils, of whom only 6, however, are blind deaf-mutes. Liberal provision is made for feeble-minded children, there being 36 institutions for this class, though not all are schools; a normal school for teachers of feebleminded children is conducted at Stockholm.

The work and influence of Hampton (Chapter VI, pp. 559-579).—At a meeting held at New York in February, 1904, under the direction of the Armstrong Association, addresses were made by a number of

prominent men in which the educational needs of the South, especially as related to the elevation of the colored race, were considered from various standpoints.

A letter from ex-President Cleveland was read, in which he referred to the general agreement as to the necessity of a better equipment of the negro population for self-support and usefulness and the obligation upon patriotic citizens to encourage institutions having this object in view, and which had proved their merit by their results. Mr. Andrew Carnegie, the chairman of the meeting, in his address dwelt upon the menace to the state of an ignorant voting population. It is only through education in its widest sense, he said, that the backward elements of society can become properly qualified to have a voice in the government, and an educational test for the suffrage should be adopted and strictly applied to black and white alike.

President Eliot of Harvard spoke of the necessity of the "prompt formation of a sound public opinion about the right treatment of backward races," and asserted that Hampton possessed the keyword to the situation, viz, education and productive labor. He discussed at some length the chief points of resemblance and of difference between northern and southern opinion regarding the negro. The two sections, in his view, are agreed in regard to keeping the two races pure, as well as in having separate schools wherever the colored children are sufficiently numerous to justify it, while the northern whites are even more averse than the southern whites to coming into personal contact with the negro. On the other hand, in the North the idea of political equality does not carry with it that of social equality, as seems to be apprehended in the South. Moreover, while public opinion at the North is in favor of giving the negro good opportunities for education of every grade, in the South diverse views are held on the subject. Some southern whites think that any kind or degree of education whatever works an injury to the negro; others think he should be educated, but only for manual occupations, while still others recognize the need of negro professional men with an adequate equipment. The same dread of an ignorant and corruptible suffrage exists in the North and in the South, but in the North a remedy is sought through the medium of universal education. In regard to the value of the peculiar type of education which characterizes Hampton, i. e., education through manual training and labor at trades and crafts, there is coming to be a striking agreement between northern and southern opinion, as is witnessed by the rapid introduction of such features during recent years into urban school systems in the North.

President Eliot asserts that there is a growing appreciation in the North of the peculiar difficulties attending the solution of the educa