the dry and barren low ground, the most conspicuous shrubs are Zizyphus jujuba, Adhatoda Vasica, Capparis aphylla, Salvadora, Vitex Negundo and Tecoma undulata. All timber of any size is afforded either by the cultivated trees of the valley, such as the mulberry and sissoo, or by the timber rafts of the Swat and Kabul rivers. The firewood supply of the cantonment is furnished by the above-named shrubs, and large quantities of oak (Q. ilex) are brought from the Khyber, It appears not unlikely that, ere many years elapse, the supply of firewood for Peshawar at reasonable rates will be difficult or impossible.'

Firewood was selling at Peshawar, says Cleghorn, at about four maunds and charcoal at two maunds per rupee.

Waziristan and the Kurrum. “The value of the timber of the hills of Waziristan to us," says Cleghorn, " is very small; if we except the limited supply of firewood afforded by the shrubby vegetation of the outer zone, which is similar to that along the frontier, few of the indigenous shrubs are used, and these only in the construction of agricultural instruments, and the roofs of small buildings, etc." The oaks of the inner hills were far too distant from the plains to enable the timber to be made use of for house-building by the inhabitants of the latter; and the same applied to the coniferous timber from the Pir Gal.

The portion of the Trans-border country most conveniently situated for the supply of timber was that adjacent to the sources of the Bara River; whose numerous tributaries flowed from the southern spurs of the Safed Koh Mountains between Kurrum and the Khyber. Major Lumsden told Cleghorn that this elevated region, inhabited by the Afridi and Orakzai tribes (who have since become only too well known to our Frontier Officers and Frontier Force) and known as Teera Maidan, had the summit and slopes of its ridges clothed with deodar and pine forests, whilst below walnut, plane, horse-chestnut, apple, apricot and other trees were found. The internecine feuds of the tribes inhabiting Teera Maidan, had hitherto debarred the development of the resources of these forests, from which short timbers could be floated in the season of flood down the Bara stream to Pesha

war.

The valley of the Kurrum River, which rises near Huryoob, beyond the ridge of the Solimani Mountains, was little known, but was said to contain pine forests. Reference had been made

to these in Elphinstone's Kabul and Bellew's Political Mission to Afghanistan. Dr. Stewart had also seen them during the Waziristan Expedition. Lumsden thought it would be quite feasible to float timber from Huryoob, Chum kunnie and Kurrum itself down the Kurrum River to Bannu, though he remarked that there were portions of the stream where, except in floods, long timbers would have to be assisted, owing to the tortuous course of the river. "The valley of Kurrum and its adjacent tributaries," says Lumsden, “being held in jaghir by Afghan Sirdars, who are poor, arrangements could doubtless be made to cut and float the timber down to our territory; from Thul Billandkhel it must be sent either by hand to Kohat or down stream to Bannu." It appears to have been considered that the political and economic advantages would be great, but the Kurrum is a small river, even at its mouth, and Cleghorn had doubts as to whether logs could be floated down from the hills.

In the Bannu District a natural sissoo forest, known as the Kachi Forest, existed, extending over 14 to 15 miles on low alluvial land upon the left bank of the Indus, between the villages of Bukkri and Futtykhan, and more sparingly for fifteen miles lower down, or altogether thirty miles from Kalabagh. Cleghorn strongly recommended that this forest, which was suffering at the hands of the increased population and their cattle, should be preserved, and his recommendation resulted in a small establishment being sanctioned by Government in 1862. There was another large forest of sissoo and olive, about ten miles from Kohat, which he thought might also yield a considerable supply of timber. "This and the Kachi Forest," says Cleghorn, "are the only sources from whence any great supply of sissoo can be obtained in the Punjab." "And," he added, "there are few trees in India which so much deserve attention as the sissoo, considering its rapid growth, durability of the timber and its usefulness for many purposes; the wood is universally employed when procurable by Europeans and natives where strength is required. Great efforts have been made to introduce this tree, and where there is depth of soil (as in the Kachi Forest) it grows to large size."

Sissoo and large babul were used for boat-building, which was an important industry on the Indus. Five types of boats were used on this river between Attock and the sea. Those best known were the "zoruk of the Upper Indus; the

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dunda," which plied from Mithankote to the sea, and the dugga," which owing to its stout build was specially suited to the rapids between Attock and Kalabagh. Owing to the shortage in the supplies of sissoo and babul various other species of timber had to be employed in addition to these two in the construction of these boats, such as deodar, P. longifolia, Quercus incana and Karil (Capparis aphylla). Malabar teak was much prized on the Lower Indus and fetched a large price. The sides and bottom of the ordinary ferry boats were constructed separately, and these parts were then secured by knees or crooked pieces nailed on to them. The bottom was made of sissoo, the knees of mulberry or olive and the side planks of deodar. The wedges and trenails were usually made of Morus loevigata and olive. Ropes for rafts and boats were prepared either from hemp (Cannabis indica), sirki (Saccharum spontaneum), Typha latifolia, or other reeds common on the river bank. Munj (Saccharum munja) was also commonly employed by native boatmen.

The great boat-building localities of the Punjab at this period were Pind Dadun Khan, Wazirabad and Jhelum ; but there was a marked increase in building on the Indus, not only at Attock but at Nowshera, Hashtnagar, Mokhud and Kalabagh. The " duggas," after dropping down to Sind, were sold, as the cost of towing them back again against stream exceeded the value of the boat.

CHAPTER XXV

FOREST OPERATIONS IN THE PUNJAB, 1858-1864 (continued)

THE FUEL SUPPLIES OF SIMLA AND THE PUNJAB PLAINS

D

R. FALCONER'S remarks on the subject of the fuel supplies of Simla and the neighbouring hill stations in this part of the Himalaya in 1853 have been alluded to in a previous chapter. Cleghorn's observations made during a visit to Simla and neighbouring military stations ten years later are of added interest, since at the time he wrote them he had not read Falconer's Report. The origin of Simla has already been detailed (vide p. 282). The year following Cleghorn's visit (1864) the GovernorGeneral, Lord Lawrence, came up to Simla accompanied, for the first time, by the Supreme Council and all the public offices, and the Station became the summer capital from that year onwards. For many years previously to 1864, however, successive Governors-General had resorted to Simla, with more or less regularity, for some weeks during the hot season; but in these earlier years only a small staff of officials accompanied the Governor-General. The first visit of a Governor-General to Simla was that of Lord Amherst, in 1827. After his progress through the North-West, celebrating the triumphant ending of the Bhartpur campaign, Lord Amherst proceeded for the summer months to Simla. This was the foundation of Simla's greatness.

In the years since Falconer's visit the Fuel Supply question had grown increasingly difficult. Cleghorn had the opportunity of discussing the matter with the Deputy Commissioner, Lord William Hay (who had so ably held charge of Simla and the district during the terrible Mutiny days), and several of the old residents of Simla, and had to guide him his experience of the same class of difficulty which had engaged his attention at Ootacamund and elsewhere in the South. The trouble at Simla was aggravated owing to the fact that the summer

capital was encircled by territory belonging to independent Hill Chiefs in which the forests or fuel-cutting areas were situated. There had been little regulation in the fellings carried out and, as Falconer had shown, the waste and destruction before 1853 had been appalling. The position now was worse than ten years before.

Some difficulty was experienced in calculating the requirements of the Simla community. At this period there were 980 houses with an average, it was calculated, of not less than 1800 fires burning daily throughout the year (at that period Simla was nearly empty during the winter). This gave a consumption of not less than 900 maunds per diem. The following calculation was drawn up by Lord William Hay, Cleghorn and representatives of the Hill Chiefs :

=900 maunds per diem. It was estimated that each European house burnt daily 2 maunds (160 lbs.) of wood and 6 seers (1 seer 2 lbs.) of charcoal.

=

In the Military Stations of Kasowli, Dugshai, Sabathu and Jotogh the returns of the Commissariat officer in 1860-1 showed that 67,669 maunds of wood and charcoal of the value of Rs.18,045 were used (Kasowli, 18,623 maunds; Dugshai, 29,372; Sabathu, 16,163; and Jotogh, 3511). This amount was exclusive of the consumption in the houses of officers, the bakery and brewery and the amounts used by the Engineer Department. In the same year the Lawrence Asylum, Sonawar; used 8769 maunds of wood and 697 maunds of charcoal. This amount in proportion was far greater than the amounts consumed at Simla and the other stations; but as has been mentioned only small amounts were used at Simla during the winter in those days, whilst only small detachments