cendency, because of the influence of the monks and clergy over the simple populace, and because the custom of engaging in foreign military service, which formed the chief means of support among these people, was opposed by the Reformers.

The five Catholic cantons concluded an alliance with Austria, and vigorously and sternly suppressed every innovation; while Berne and Zurich aided the Reformation in the frontier towns with bigoted zeal and violence. In this agitated condition of Switzerland a civil and religious war was inevitable, especially as Zwingli meditated such a revolution as would give the political supremacy in the Republic to the two most powerful cantons, Berne and Zurich.

saries of life-a proceeding which exasperated the Catholic cantons. The Catholics made secret preparations and attacked the people of Zurich unawares. The Zurichers, surprised and irresolute, and forsaken by the Bernese, sent a force of two thousand men against double that number of Catholics, but were totally defeated in the bloody battle of Kappel, in 1531, in which Zwingli was slain.

The brave Zwingli had accompanied his followers as field preacher, and fell beside the banner of the city; and along with him perished the staunchest friends of the Reformation in Switzerland. His dead body was subjected to the insults of his indignant foes, after which it was burned and the ashes scattered to the winds. The Catholic tri

places in Switzerland that had seemed to favor the Reformation, thus producing the religious divisions that have prevailed in the Swiss Republic ever since.

SECTION VII.-CHARLES V., IN THE meantime, during the progress of the Reformation in Germany, the Emperor Charles V. was engaged in his wars with King Francis I. of France the first of that long series of wars between Austria and France that lasted with but brief intervals of peace for almost two centuries (A. D. 1520-1714).

The war began on the side of Navarre, which little kingdom was invaded by a French army under Andrew de Foix, a relative of the deposed King of Navarre, who quickly and easily effected the conquest of the kingdom, as almost all of its fortresses had been destroyed. He then sought to join the insurgents in Spain, who had secured control of the imbecile Queen Joanna, and who in her name endeavored to expel the regent appointed by Charles V. Castilian Castilian Junta demanded

The

that

FRANCIS I. AND THE TURKS. Charles V. should reside in Spain, not in Germany or in the Netherlands; that he should appoint no foreigner to any civil or ecclesiastical office in Spain; and that he should convene the Cortes once in three years. The independence of the Cortes was guarded by a rule that none of its members should receive any place or pension from the king. Judges were to be maintained by regular salaries, and were forbidden to receive any portion of the fines or forfeitures of persons whom they condemned; while bishops were to reside in their dioceses at least half the year; and indulgences were to be sold in Spain only with the consent of the Cortes, and the proceeds therefrom were to be applied entirely to wars against the Moslems.

Charles V. rejected this bill of rights, whereupon the Castilian Junta appealed to arms; but the insurgent army of twenty

was executed. The king's army prevented

a junction of the rebels with the French force under Andrew de Foix; but when this French commander laid siege to a Castilian town even the Castilian insurgents turned against him and drove him into Navarre, where he was defeated, mortally wounded and taken prisoner, dying several days later of his wounds; and the Spaniards rapidly recovered Navarre.

By successively allying himself with Charles V. and Francis I., Pope Leo X. obtained the duchy of Urbino and the lordships of Modena, Reggio, Perugia and Fermo. In 1521 he united with the King of France to expel the Spaniards from Southern Italy, which was to be divided between the Pope and the French king's second son. As Francis I. delayed the ratification of this treaty, Pope Leo X. made a counter alliance with the Emperor Charles V. to drive the French from Northern Italy. The Pope allowed the Emperor to seize the territories of Venice in return for promising to extirpate the Lutheran heresy in Germany-an agreement which was signed in the presence of the German Diet on the same day with the Edict of Worms issued by the Emperor against Luther and his supporters.

Three months afterward a conference was held at Calais between the envoys of the Pope, the Emperor and the Kings of France and England. Henry VIII. had offered his mediation between Francis I. and Charles V.; and his great Prime Minister, Cardinal Wolsey, was courted and flattered by the two rival sovereigns, each of whom desired to gain the English king's favor. The Emperor pledged his vast influence to secure the Papacy to Wolsey at the death of Leo X., having already granted the English Prime Minister an annual pension of ten thousand ducats. The Conference of Calais failed to accomplish anything, as the conflicting claims of the rival monarchs could not be reconciled. Francis I. demanded the two kingdoms of Naples and Navarre; while Charles V. insisted that the King of

restore Burgundy, and release the Emperor from homage for the Netherlands.

Immediately afterward the Emperor of Germany and the King of England concluded a treaty by which each agreed to invade France with an army of forty thousand men, while the Pope excommunicated the King of France and absolved his subjects from their allegiance. Another treaty was afterward concluded between the Emperor Charles V., King Henry VIII. and Pope Leo X., by which all three agreed to take rigorous proceedings against heretics in their respective dominions; and Leo X. conferred the title of Defender of the Faith upon Henry VIII., who had just written a Latin work against Luther and the Reformation.

The Albrets recovered all that part of Navarre north of the Pyrenees, and ever afterward retained possession of it. In the Netherlands, the French took the town and fortress of Hesdin, but lost Tournay. In Italy, the principal seat of the war, the able French general Lautrec, a cruel and rapacious tyrant, as viceroy of Milan, enriched himself at the expense of the inhabitants; but the French king soon lost Milan through the dissensions of his court.

One of the two hostile parties at the French court was led by Louisa of Savoy, the mother of King Francis I.; the other by the Countess of Chateaubriand, the sister of the great general, Lautrec. The twenty thousand Swiss troops in Lautrec's service, discontented for want of pay, either marched home or deserted to the Emperor Charles V. Lautrec was besieged in Milan, and when the Spanish infantry made a night attack upon the Roman gate of the city that gate was opened by the Emperor's partisans in Milan, whereupon Lautrec and his brother fled.

Francis I. severely reproached his general for the loss of Milan. Lautrec threw the entire blame on Semblançai, the French Minister of Finance, for having failed to send him money for the payment of his Swiss troops, thus causing them to desert his standard. Semblançai declared that he

had paid the money to the king's mother, and offered to produce her receipt therefor; but the wicked Louisa, who had applied the money to her private use, had bribed a clerk in the treasury to steal the receipt; and the venerable Semblançai, respected for his years and his integrity, was sentenced to be executed, being thus sacrificed to screen the queen-mother's crime. The Chancelor Duprat, who was envious of Semblançai's influence over the king, who always called the aged minister"My father," was concerned in this crime. Duprat was then employed to raise money, which he effected by the most illegal and scandalous methods, alienating the royal domains, selling public offices to the highest bidder, and doubling the already oppressive taxes.

The fortress of Milan was still held by the French, but almost all the Lombard cities opened their gates to the Emperor's troops. The imperial troops also took Parma and Piacenza, and occupied them for Pope Leo X. according to treaty. Leo X. is said to have died of joy in consequence of these successes, but other accounts say that he was poisoned. He was forty-five years of age at his death, and had reigned eight years (A. D. 1513–1521). The victorious allies were thrown into confusion by this event. The papal army was disbanded for want of funds; and Urbino, Perugia and other places gladly received back their native rulers.

The next Pope, Adrian VI., who had been regent of Spain, was chosen to the Chair of St. Peter in 1522, after a long and violent contest in the conclave of cardinals. His scholastic education made him a bitter antagonist of Luther, but he was an honest man and deplored the corruptions of the Church. He began his reign with stern efforts at reform, entering Rome bare-footed, in scorn of the luxury of his predecessors, and turning with horror from the sculptures which Leo X. had collected in the Vatican, exclaiming : "These are pagan idols!" He kept but one old servant for his household. The elegant courtiers of Leo X. looked on with disgust, which was increas

ed when the new Pope sought to replenish his exhausted finances by abolishing many useless and expensive offices; but the common people of Rome regarded his self-denying humility with enthusiastic reverence.

After being again defeated by the Emperor's troops, the French retired from Italy, surrendering all but the three citadels of Milan, Novara and Cremona. The Germans also took Genoa, of which Antoniotto Adorno became Doge.

The departure of the regent Adrian from Spain upon his election to the Papacy made it necessary for Charles V. to return to that discontented kingdom. He visited England on his way from Germany to Spain, and renewed his agreement with Cardinal Wolsey by fresh promises, at the same time flattering the English nation by making the Earl of Surrey his admiral and inducing Henry VIII. to declare war against the King of France.

Francis I. secured his eastern frontier by a treaty with Margaret, the Emperor's regent in the Netherlands, by which he promised not to invade or attack her territory of Franche-Comté for three years. The frequent renewal of this treaty left Burgundy and Franche-Comté in the enjoyment of peace, industry and prosperity for more than a century, while the AustroFrench wars were raging around them. The three duchies of Savoy, Lorraine and Bar were likewise neutral territories; and these, along with Franche-Comté, thoroughly covered the eastern side of France.

For the next eight years (A. D. 15211529) Charles V. resided in his Kingdom of Spain, being absent all that time from his Empire of Germany. He won the hearts of his Spanish subjects by his lenity to those who had rebelled during his absence, by adopting the Spanish dress, language and manners, and by excluding all foreigners from civil or ecclesiastical offices. But he strengthened his own power at the expense of the popular liberties, by making the three estates of the Spanish Cortes meet in separate places, thus dividing their strength; by winning individual representatives of the

all debate except in the presence of a presiding officer appointed by himself.

Charles's policy toward his Moorish subjects was as unjust as his grandfather Ferdinand's treatment of the Jews. The refined and industrious Moors contributed vastly to the prosperity of Spain, while being allowed toleration for their own religion, but living in obedience to Spanish laws. In 1525 Charles suddenly resolved to force them to accept Christianity, causing their copies of the Koran to be seized and their mosques to be closed, and exiling from Spain all who were not baptized before a specified date, but preventing them from reaching Africa by closing all the Spanish ports against them except Corunna in the extreme North-west of the kingdom.

Charles afterward issued a harsher edict, confiscating the goods of all Moors who refused to embrace Christianity, and selling them into slavery. This atrocious policy caused a revolt among the Moors, thousands of whom were slain, while a hundred thousand succeeded in escaping to Africa. Those remaining in Spain conformed with reluctance to the Spanish rites, customs and language, but were deprived of all privileges and reduced to the condition of beasts of burden.

Pope Adrian VI. formed a powerful coalition against Francis I., whom he held responsible for the failure of Christendom to unite in a crusade against the Ottoman Turks, who had resumed their career of conquest. In 1523 the King of France sent another army into Italy to recover Milan; but his undertaking failed, in a great measure through the conduct of his wicked mother, Louisa of Savoy, whose injustice toward the Constable de Bourbon made that powerful French nobleman the most bitter enemy of the French court, and caused him to enter the service of the Emperor Charles V. against his own king and country.

The Constable de Bourbon possessed by inheritance and marriage four duchies, four counties, two viscounties, and many smaller lordships in the center of France; and he

French crown itself in case his kinsman, King Francis I., died without sons. His great military services had been rewarded with the highest dignities and revenues, but his cold and haughty temper did not suit the king's jovial disposition, and the court favorites delighted to annoy so powerful a rival.

On the death of the Constable's wife Susanna, the heiress of the elder branch of the House of Bourbon, the king's mother desired to marry him; but the Constable, who utterly detested Louisa's vices, expressed his dislike for her in such strong language that the king was provoked to strike him. Louisa's love for the Constable was thenceforth turned to the most inveterate hatred, and she resolved to ruin him. She put in a claim to all the Bourbon possessions in right of her mother, who represented another branch of the House of Bourbon, and obtained a decision from the Parliament of Paris in her favor, also securing to herself the private revenues of his mother-in-law, Anne.

Thus deprived of everything and reduced to the verge of ruin, the proud heart of the Constable de Bourbon sought bitter revenge; and in a moment of desperation he opened negotiations with the Emperor Charles V. and with Henry VIII. of England to betray his country into their hands. An arrangement was effected for the partition of France between Charles V., King Henry VIII. and the Constable. The hereditary dominions of the Bourbons, with Lyonnois, Dauphiny and Provence, were to be erected into an independent sovereignty for the Constable himself.

transaction. The Constable fled into Germany, and was received with open arms by the Emperor Charles V., who entrusted him with the command of his armies.

In this emergency Pope Adrian VI. died, A. D. 1523; whereupon the Cardinal Giulio de Medici was chosen by the conclave of cardinals, and assumed the title of Clement VII. Thus Cardinal Wolsey was a second time disappointed, and was obliged to content himself with the dignity of papal legate, or nuncio, in England, to which extraordinary powers were attached.

In the spring of 1524 the Constable de Bourbon entered Italy as the Emperor's Lieutenant-General. The allies forced the incompetent Bonnivet, the commander of the French forces, to retreat into France. In a battle near Romagnano, during this retreat, the Chevalier Bayard, le chevalier sans peur et sans reproche, "the knight without fear and without reproach," was mortally wounded. Unwilling that the retreating army should be delayed by his misfortune, he ordered himself to be placed against a tree with his face toward the enemy. In this condition he was found by the Constable de Bourbon, who lamented that the vicissitudes of war had reduced so noble a knight to such a fate; but the dying chevalier replied: "I am not an object of pity, Sir Duke. I die happy in having performed my duty to my king and country. It is you who deserve pity, who are bearing arms against your native land, forgetting that the death of every traitor is violent, and his memory detested."

This favorite hero of the age was the last model of chivalry that appeared in Europe. Though he held only the rank of captain, he really possessed more influence than any general, from the universal respect and admiration inspired by his high character. He had been taken prisoner by the English in the Battle of the Spurs in 1513. He was the ancestor of the Bayard family which has represented the State of Delaware in the United States Senate at different times for a century.

The German imperial army under the

Constable de Bourbon and the Marquis Pescara now invaded France by the Cornice Road, captured Aix, Toulon and Frejus, and besieged Marseilles; but on the approach of Francis I. with a powerful army the Constable raised the siege and beat a precipitate retreat into Italy, pursued by the King of France with a well equipped army of thirty thousand men.

With characteristic imprudence, Francis I. laid siege to the strongly fortified town of Pavia, which was defended by a numerous garrison, under the command of Antonio de Leyva, an able general. The imperial generals, who were the viceroy Lannoy and the Constable de Bourbon, made the greatest efforts to collect a numerous army for the relief of the garrison of Pavia. The inactivity and indiscretion of the French king, who weakened his army by sending detachments against Naples and Savona, operated in favor of the imperialists.

Bourbon resolved to attack the French in their intrenchments; and on the night of February 23, 1523, Bourbon's army stormed the French camp, while at the same time the garrison of Pavia made a furious sally, thus placing the French between two fires. After a most sanguinary conflict, the French army was almost totally destroyed. Ten thousand brave warriors were either killed in the encounter, or drowned in the waters of the Ticino. The chivalrous Francis himself, after a gallant defense, was unhorsed and taken prisoner. He was recognized by an attendant of the Constable de Bourbon, who advised him to surrender. The chivalrous king scornfully refused to become the captive of his traitorous vassal, but called for Lannoy and surrendered his sword to that commander.

This was the greatest disaster that the French had suffered since the battle of Poitiers, as their king was a captive, and the flower of their nobility and soldiery was left dead on the sanguinary field. Bonnivet was among the slain, and when the Constable de Bourbon saw his dead body he exclaimed: "Unfortunate man, you have ruined France, yourself and me!"

The