Preliminary observations-Early attempts of the Spaniards to explore the western coasts of North America-Voyages made by authority of Hernan Cortes-Discovery of California by Becerra, in 1535-Voyage of Cortes in the Gulf of California-Discovery of the west coast of California by Ulloa, in 1539-Expeditions of Ceronado and Alarcon-Voyage of Cabrillo, in 1542-Establishment of direct intercourse by the Pacific, between Mexico and India-Visit of Francis Drake to the northwest coast in 1579.

THE territories first seen by Europeans on the western side of 1493. the Atlantic were naturally supposed to be parts of Asia, or to lie in the immediate vicinity of that continent, the eastern limits of which were then unknown; and, as the circumference of the earth was moreover, at that time, considered to be much less than it really is, hopes were entertained among the maritime nations of Europe that some route for their ships to India, safer and shorter than any around the southern extremity of Africa, would be speedily discovered.

It was under the influence of such expectations that the uni- 1495. ted Spanish Sovereigns concluded with the King of Portugal the celebrated Treaty of Partition, founded on the bull issued in 1494, by Pope Alexander VI. Agreeably to this treaty, the Spaniards were to make no attempts to communicate with India by sea through eastern routes, which became in a manner the property of Portugal; while, on the other hand, they were to possess exclusive control and use of every western channel of intercourse with those countries, which might be discovered. This and other important questions of jurisdiction having been thus definitively settled between the two greatest maritime Powers of Europe, under the guaranty of the highest authority then recognised among civilized nations, each of the parties to the treaty continued its researches within the limits assigned to it.

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1498. In these examinations, the Portuguese were the most successful. They soon found their way by the Cape of Good Hope to India, where they firmly established their pre-eminence; while the Spaniards were vainly exploring the Atlantic coasts of the New World, in search of some opening through which they might penetrate with their ships into the ocean bathing the southern 1513. side of Asia. At length, in 1513, Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, the Governor of the Spanish colony of Darien, on the Atlantic, after a short march across the mountains overlooking that place, arrived on the shore of a sea, which was supposed to be no other than the long-sought Southern ocean; and, as the proximity of this sea to the Atlantic was at the same time demonstrated, farther encouragement was afforded for the hope that the two great waters would be found united in a position the most favorable for the prosecution of the desired objects. The researches of the Spaniards were, in consequence, directed particularly towards the isthmus of Darien; and were conducted with zeal, until the fact of the entire separation of the oceans in that quarter was determined.

1519.

In the mean time, however, Fernando Magalhaens, or Magellan, a Portuguese in the service of Spain, discovered the strait which has ever since borne his name, and, having passed through it with his ships, continued his voyage westward to India. The grand geographical question, as to the possibility of circumnavigating the earth, was thus solved; but not in a manner satisfactory to the Spaniards. The strait of Magellan was intricate, and beset by dangers of every kind; and it was itself almost as distant from Europe as India by the eastern route. Moreover, the sea intervening between the new continent and Asia proved to be much wider than had been supposed; and, in every part of it, which was traversed by vessels for many years after its discovery, the winds were found to blow constantly from eastern points. 1520. These circumstances, as they successively became known, contributed to depress the hopes of the Spaniards, with regard to the establishment of their dominion in India; other events, however, occurred at the same time, which consoled them in part for the disappointment, and fixed their attention upon the New World.

1517

to

1532.

While Magellan's voyage was in progress, the rich and populous empire of Mexico was discovered, and it was soon after conquered by the Spaniards, under Hernan Cortes. Within the ensuing ten years Peru and Chili were likewise subjected to the authority of the Spanish monarch; and the silver of America began to be considered as ample compensation for the loss of the spices and diamonds of India. The brilliant results of these extraordinary enterprises attracted from Europe crowds of adventurers, all eager to acquire wealth and distinction by similar means, who, uniting in bands under daring leaders, traversed the new continent in various directions, seeking rich nations to plunder. Fortunately for the cause of humanity, these expeditions were fruitless, so far at least as regards the object for which they were undertaken; on the other hand, much information was speedily acquired by means of them, respecting the geography of coasts

and regions, which would not otherwise have been explored, per- 1517 haps, for centuries.

Among those who were at this period engaged in endeavoring to discover new kingdoms in America, and new passages between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, the most zealous and persevering was Hernan Cortes. Scarcely had he effected the establishment of the Spanish authority in Mexico, ere he commenced preparations for exploring the adjacent seas and countries; in expeditions of which nature he employed a great portion of his time, as well as of his private fortune, during the whole period of his residence in that kingdom. In prosecution of his plans, the interior, as well as the coasts on both sides of the region connecting Mexico with South America, were minutely explored, until it had been ascertained that no wealthy nations occupied those territories, and that the two seas were entirely separated by land throughout the whole extent. This arduous task having been accomplished, the enterprising conqueror of Mexico directed his attention towards the northwest.

At that period, the most northern settlements of the Spaniards in the American continent were: on the Atlantic side, Panuco, situated near the spot now occupied by the town of Tampico, within a few miles of the Mexican Gulf; and, on the Pacific, Culiacan, a small place near the eastern side of the entrance to the Gulf of California. Northward of these settlements, which were both in the vicinity of the tropic of Cancer, nothing was known of the continent, except with regard to some isolated portions of

its eastern coasts.

It should here be observed, that the accounts which have descended to us of all voyages performed before the middle of the last century, and of all Spanish voyages to a much more recent period, are very defective, especially as regards geographical positions. Seldom, indeed, is it possible to identify a spot by means of the descriptions contained in those accounts. This arises, in the first place, from the circumstance that such narratives were usually written by priests, or other persons unacquainted with nautical matters, who paid little attention to latitudes and bearings. In the next place, the instruments employed in those days for determining the altitudes and relative distances of heavenly bodies were so imperfect, both in plan and in execution, that observations made with them on land, and under the most favorable conditions of atmosphere, led to results which were far from accurate; while at sea, when there was much motion in the vessel, or the air was not absolutely clear, those instruments were useless. To these causes of error are to be added the want of proper methods of calculation, as well as of knowledge of various modifying circumstances, such as refraction, aberration, &c. Hence, it followed that the statements of latitude, given in the accounts above mentioned, are of little value as indicating the positions of places, and are at best only approximative; while those of longitude, being,

* Letter of Cortes to Charles V., written from Mexico, in 1523.

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1532.

1531. when given at all, deduced merely from the notes of the vessel's course and rate of sailing, are entirely worthless. It is scarcely necessary to add that this uncertainty as to the geographical situations of places produced confusion with regard to names; and, accordingly, we find that there are few remarkable spots on the northwest coast of America, discovered before the middle of the last century, which have not at different times been distinguished by many different appellations.

1532.

1533.

Respecting the voyages of discovery, made by order of Cortes in the Atlantic seas, little is to be found on record; and no notice of them is required for our present purposes. The first expedition, under his auspices, towards the northwest, took place in 1532, and terminated most disastrously.

This expedition was commanded by Diego Hurtado de Mendoza, a relation of Cortes, who sailed from Acapulco in a small ship, accompanied by another under Juan de Mazuela; they advanced together along the southwest coast of Mexico, as far north as the 27th degree of latitude, and were there separated by a storm: after which nothing more was heard of the vessel commanded by Mendoza. The other ship, under Mazuela, was obliged, after the storm, to put back to the river of Culiacan, the nearest Spanish port, where she was deserted by the greater part of her crew. Those who remained then endeavored to carry her to Acapulco; but she was stranded on the shore of the province of Jalisco, near the place where San Blas now stands; and her crew, with the exception of three, were murdered by the savages. The vessel was subsequently seized and rifled by Nuño de Guzman, the chief of a roving band of adventurers, who, assuming the title of Governor of Jalisco, pretended to act for the Sovereign of Spain, independently of Cortes.

A year having elapsed after the departure of these vessels, without any news being received of them, Cortes despatched two others in the same direction, under Hernando de Grijalva and Diego de Becerra, who sailed together from Tehuantepec on the 30th of October, 1533.

Grijalva, being soon separated from his companion, took a westward course, and reached a group of small islands at the distance of a hundred and fifty miles from the main land, (now called the Revillagigedo islands;) after which he returned to Mexico, without having effected any other discovery.

Meanwhile, Becerra, likewise sailing westward from Tehuantepec, found land almost immediately under the tropic of Cancer, and anchored in a small bay, where his men, having obtained some valuable pearls, became anxious to fix themselves for a time. This Becerra refused to permit; and he was preparing to continue his voyage, when a mutiny took place, in the course of which he was murdered, and the command was assumed by Fortunio Ximenes, the pilot. In pursuance of their plan, the mutineers then landed, and began to construct habitations on the shore of the bay; but, while thus engaged, they were surprised by a body of savages, who killed nearly the whole of them. The survivors escaped with the vessel, and succeeded in navigating her over to