Necker was like a philosopher, who, de- | prudence could have averted the coming vising a machine in strict accordance with catastrophe. abstract mathematical principles, should leave out of his calculations the effects of friction. He had in his mind the abstract idea of a legislative assembly, and the high functions which it was intended to perform; but he had not sufficiently considered how unequal to fulfil his aspirations was that mighty mass of presumptuous ignorance and factious violence, to which he was committing the destinies of the

nation.

"The mass of good sense possessed by a free nation did not," says Madame de Staël, "exist in France." "The third estate," she says again, "could only possess one merit, that of moderation, and unfortunately it would not take the trouble of acquiring it."

"As a statesman," says Benjamin Constant, "M. Necker shared the fate of all those who attempted, or who were constrained to attempt, to direct a revolution destined by the force of circumstances to baffle we reflect on the disposition of men's minds at that all calculations, and to clear a passage for itself. If period, if we consider the opposite interests of various parties, all of them alike inexperienced, and whose opinions, condensed into some absolute phrases, had all the violence of prejudices and the inflexibility of principles, we must feel that no human energy or prudence were capable of mastering such elements." -Mélanges, pp. 191, 192.

The same writer, after some observations upon the advantages enjoyed by Madame de Staël for the composition of this work on the French Revolution, adds—

had not applied to the painting of political characters
the talents which she had displayed in Delphine. No
with more piquant expressions, the numerous aposta-
one would have described with more gracefulness, or
cies covered with the mask of principle; the selfish
calculations transformed into conversions ; the pre-
judices again resumed to-day as means, by the very
the vestals of vice, who preserve its tradition like the
men who but yesterday repelled them as obstacles;
sacred fire, and who, traitors alternately to despotism
and to liberty, remain faithful only to corruption, as
the patriot does to his country. But Madame de
memoirs."-p. 195.
Staël preferred the form of history to that of private

"If she had condescended to paint individuals more What strong condemnation of the poli- frequently and more in detail, her work, although it would have ranked lower as a literary composition, cy which armed this class, so deficient in would have perhaps gained something in anecdotic good sense and moderation, with a pre-interest. It is impossible to help regretting that she dominant power, which, but for Necker's theoretical rashness, might have been withheld till they were better able to use it with discretion! What was the immediate consequence?"In one month," says Madame de Staël, "affairs had greatly changed; the tiers-etat had been allowed to grow so strong, that they were no longer grateful for the concessions which they were sure to obtain." It is almost evident that in her heart she disapproved of the policy which her filial feelings have led her to defend. That in which she really succeeds, is, as Benjamin Constant observes, in defending her father "against the charges of those who accuse him of having set these elements in fermentation." The elements of discord had been long accumulating, and were fermenting already. The French Revolution was no unexpected and accidental explosion.

"Those," says Madame de Staël,"who treat it as an accidental event, have neither looked back to the past, nor forward into futurity; they have confounded the authors with the piece, and in order to satisfy their passions they have attributed to the men of the moment the results which centuries had been preparing."

Necker is not chargeable with having produced convulsion; he only did not sufficiently impede the rapid march of revolution. His error was, perhaps, like that of the reckless charioteer, who, when a certain descent was to be made, should prefer the straight steep road to that which was easy and circuitous, and should choose to go down without a drag-chain. At the same time we must give to Necker the benefit of a doubt, whether at such a moment the happiest union of energy and

We entirely concur with him in his opinion of Madame de Staël's ability to have enriched her work still more with characteristic portraitures of remarkable personages, and that it would have been more entertaining if it had been more replete with anecdote, and had partaken more of the nature of a memoir. But in order to be thus entertaining, it must have descended a little from the high ground it now occupies. If it had been what M. Constant recommends, it would too often have discoursed of persons rather than of principles, and have devoted to individuals that attention which is now given to the consideration of the mass. Personalities are the bane of politics; and we are glad when those who have the power to treat them as abstract questions, have pursued the course which their genius entitles them to maintain. In spite of M. Constant's complaint of the paucity and brevity of the characteristic delineations, these already constitute a very remarkable and interesting portion of the work. Madame de Staël has done enough in this one work to stamp herself as an eminent mistress of the difficult art of historical portraiture.

How admirably drawn is the character of of passion, she has poured forth a disCalonne! frivolous and reckless, who was sertation on its characteristics and effects, thought to possess superior talents because rich in eloquence and sparkling effusions he treated serious matters with the levity of vigorous originality, but deficient in of affected superiority, and who forgot that connection of argument, in logical closeto sport with difficulties is pardonableness, and in that conciseness which enables only in those who can surmount them! the reader to follow her meaning, without What a picture is that of Brienne, the weariness and difficulty. The best parts Archbishop of Toulouse (afterwards of of the treatise are those which she has deSens)-ever halting between two opin- rived most immediately from the dark ions, alternately philosophe and absolutist, contemplation of recent troubles. The firm in neither, bringing to his aid in great concluding portion of the first section, emergencies only that courtier-like finesse her chapters on crime and on the spirit of which under a representative system of party, are especially true and forcible. In government is productive of distrust ra- each of these she introduces many just ther than of respect. Dumont's full-length and pointed observations, which serve to picture of Mirabeau is more complete, but explain the almost incredible atrocities of not more masterly than her sketch of this the ruling monsters of the Reign of Ter extraordinary man-the democrat from ror. Truly has she said that there is a interest, the aristocrat from inclination-point of remorseless wickedness at which profligate and temporizing-of genius bril- men contract a morbid avidity for the liant but limited-indebted for the materials of his eloquence to the assistance of his friends, yet turning whatever he touched into gold. Admirable is her pointed sketch of Pethion, a cold fanatic, pushing all new ideas to their extremes, because he found it easier to exaggerate than to comprehend them. These are a few out of many striking portraits which figure in the pages of this remarkable work.

dread and hatred of their fellows, as they might previously have desired their admiration and esteem; that they wish to as tonish by their crimes, and feel that there is a desirable distinction in its very excess; that the more humane feelings of their nature become productive only of uneasiness and remorse, and that they have at length no satisfaction but in plung ing deeper into crime, and denaturalizing themselves more effectually; that there arises a species of mental thirst for the horrible excitement that crime affords, ever increasing like the physical thirst of the habitual drunkard, and progressively requiring a more powerful stimulus. Before this horrible progress can be made, the two great bonds which (religion apart) keep men in the path of virtue, public opinion and self-esteem, must both be broken. The gloomy misanthrope who has set at nought the former, still clings to the latter, and is saved by it from crime; but the reckless criminal, such as Madame de Staël has represented, must equally have discarded both; or the public opinion which he courts is of so depraved and perverted a nature, that it is utterly incapable of guiding him aright. Such is the public opinion of a fraternity of thieves

Among the metaphysical works of Madame de Staël, the most remarkable is her treatise "De l'Influence de Passions," published in 1796. It was written when her imagination was strongly impressed with the dreadful consequences of that unbridled effervescence of popular passions, which had been laying waste the happiness of France during the awful period of the ascendency of Robespierre. Ac customed to view with alarm the effect of ungoverned passion both in individuals and in masses, and the violent expression of it which the incidents of those times called forth, she was inclined to exaggerate both its evil tendencies and its degree of influence upon human conduct; and to represent the human race as more impassioned and excitable, and less calculating than an extensive view will prove them to be. The results of passion are such was the demoralized public opinmore apparent than the suggestions of self interest; but in civilized communities, under ordinary circumstances, the latter and not the former must be regarded as the primary guide of human conduct. Interest as a motive may be considered to form the rule, and passion the exception. But such is not the opinion of Madame de Staël; and under her view of the influence 2

VOL. XIV.

ion to which Robespierre and his confederates appealed more imposingly during the Reign of Terror. Well has she designated the leading traits of that dangerous spirit-the spirit of party-a spirit the more dangerous, because minds apparently the most strong and enlightened, minds like that of Condorcet, are not proof against even its excess. In that

spirit the strongest cementing bond of than that of having been dazzled and deunion is, as she has well shown, not common love, but common hatred.

"At the time," says Madame de Staël, "when the constitutionalists were warring with the jacobins, if the aristocrats had adopted the system of the former,

lighted with much rich and discursive eloquence, but without being strongly impressed with the distinct purpose on which it was expended.

Not only is her work not sufficiently practical in its tendency, but that part which is most practical is not eminently sound. She dwells on the inexpediency of passion as an obstacle in the path to

But

if they had advised the king to put his trust in them, they might then have overthrown their common enemy, without losing the hope of one day ridding themselves of their allies. But in the spirit of party, persons like better to fall, dragging their enemies with them, than to triumph along with any of them. In place of attending at the elections where they happiness, rather than as a seduction from might have influenced the choice of men on whom the path of virtue. The one, it is true, is the fate of France was about to depend, they prefer- resolvable into the other; but their intired subjecting her to the yoke of ruffians, to a partial mate connection might have been more acknowledgment of the principles of the revolution by voting in the primary assemblies." pointedly shown, and the higher motive placed foremost. She also takes too dark Recent circumstances of a milder cha- a view of the passions of our nature. racter in this country have taught us the They are implanted in us, not for unmititruth of this picture, not merely as ap gated evil, but also for good. It is not plied to France, but to human nature ge-requisite that they should be utterly supnerally. Turning to the ultra-Tory, we pressed. They are susceptible of a benemay say, "mutato nomine, de te fabula ficent direction. It is one of the peculianarratur." Akin to the infatuation of the rities of our religion that it enjoins a cul-French aristocrat, is the conduct of some tivation of the affections-that its preof our soi-disant conservatives, who, es- cepts are inculcated not solely through tablishing an unnatural alliance with the the stimulants of hope and fear, but also extremest violence of the opposite party, through an appeal to the affections. have been ready to support the democrat comparatively cold and chilling is the ic Radical in preference to the ministerial moral philosophy of Madame de Staël, Whig. The two extremes have been and little tending to the advancement of united together in one common hatred of man considered as a social being. Her moderate Whiggism-of that Whiggism, theory tends to denaturalize man, to check which the Radical ally of the Tory hates, the warm emotions of his nature, and this because it is too Tory, and the Tory ally with a view to secure his happiness. Reof the Radical, for its supposed tendency ligious fervor, friendship, and parental, to radical doctrines. Well has she also filial, and conjugal love, are not allowed described that other prominent character- in her doctrine to be admitted to the rank istic of party spirit-its intolerance-an of resources. They are considered only intolerance displayed even in the promul- intermediate between the more stormy gation of opinions of which toleration and passions and those resources which we liberality are essential ingredients. She find in ourselves. had seen Atheism preached with all the intolerance of fanatical superstition, and liberty advocated in the tone of despotism. In this treatise Madame de Staël has executed only one, and that the least difficult, portion of the task she had undertaken, and of which she holds forth a promise in her eloquent introduction. It was her plan to show the influence of passion on the fate, not only of individuals, but of nations. The latter portion is that which "But even when friendship and natural sentiments she has not accomplished. Perhaps it can-naticism, we cannot include such affections in the are free from exigence, when religion is without fanot be said that she is eminently successful class of resources which we find in our own bosoms, in the first. The work abounds in just and for these modified sentiments make happiness still deprofound views of human nature, and in pendent upon chance. If you are separated from a aphorisms of original and sterling merit. whom fate has given to you, are unworthy of your dear friend, if the parents, the children, the husband, Yet such is its diffuseness, its want of love, the happiness which these ties might promise connection and arrangement, and the clear is no longer in your power; and as to religion, that proposition of some definite object of which forms the basis of its enjoyments-the intenproof, that the reader will too often rise sity of faith-is a gift absolutely independent of us; without this firm belief, we must still acknowledge from its perusal with no other impression the utility of religious ideas; but it is beyond the

Friendship, parental, filial, and conjugal affections, and, with some characters, religion, have many others the same affections supply most of the advanof the inconveniences of the passions, while in tages of resources which we find within ourselves. The exigence, in other words the want of a certain which friendship and the feelings of nature remind return from others, is the point of resemblance by us of the pains of love; and when religion partakes of fanaticism, all that I have said of the spirit of party completely applies to it.

46

power of any human being to make himself sure of philosophy, we are afterwards told "il happiness from these.” faut de la solitude," and yet she tells us a There is weakness and sophistry in this little farther on, that "la solitude est, pour passage. The grounds on which she pro- les ames agitées par de grandes passions, scribes the affections as sources of happi- une situation très dangereuse." This is ness, whould tend to exclude all human true-but does it not follow from thence pursuits. Uncertainty and disappointment that the philosophy which demands soliare contingencies incident alike to every tude is not exactly that of which it will be course of thought and feeling, to every utile et possible aux ames passionnées object of human exertion. If the possi- d'adopter les secours?" As for what she bility that they might befall us in any pur- says of la satisfaction que donne la pospose of our heart or head is sufficient to ba- session de soi, acquise par la meditation" nish that purpose from our cata ogue of re- "le bonheur que trouve un philosophe sources if hope is to be dethroned, and dans la possession de soi"- "une sorte foreboding fear installed in its stead, it is in d'abstraction dont la jouissance est cepenvain that Madame de Staël holds forth the dant reelle," by which" on s'eléve à quelque flattering idea that we have in fact any re- distance de soi-même pour se regarder, sources at all. What are those which she penser et vivre"-"la solitude est le preholds forth? Study, beneficence, and the mier des biens pour le philosophe"pococurantism, which she calls philosophy." cette douce mélancolie, vrai sentiment Of these, the two former are ever liable de l'homme, resultat de sa destinée, seule to be frustrated. The intent and endea- situation du cœur, qui laisse à la meditavor to do good are not sufficient to com- tion toute son action et toute sa force"mand success. Study may fail in attain ing its desired reward, and circumstances over which man has no control may ar- In the last part of this treatise she is rest it in its course. Some object there obliged to explain away many of the conmust be, and the object may vanish on ap- clusions to which we should have been proach, like the mirage in the desert, led by the preceding observations, and to which had beguiled the thirsting traveller neutralize what she felt to be the evil tenwith the semblance of water. Yet we re- dency of some of its speculations. She peat, some object there must be; for no does this still more at length in a work reasoning being of sound mind will long written many many years afterwards, her continue to cherish the blossom, without "Reflexions sur le Suicide," in which bestowing a thought on the fruit that is to follow. Are then study and beneficence not resources, because disappointment and failure are incident to them? Upon Madame de Staël's principle they are not, and yet she offers them as such.

all these are mere phrases, which practically have no real significance or value.

she is at much pains to exculpate herself
from the imputation of being an advo-
cate of suicide, or at least of regarding it
too indulgently, an imputation thoroughly
warranted, both by certain passages in the
"Influence des Passions" and the tenor of
The
several of her tales.
Reflexions"
are not distinguished by any particular
vigor, brilliancy, or originality of thought,
but they are right-minded, and serve at
least the purpose of clearing the authoress
from the imputation of having entertained
pernicious opinions on this subject during
the latter years of her life.

Her chapter "de la Philosophie," in which she proposes this imaginary boon as an antidote to unhappiness, is one of the most unphilosophic she ever wrote. Her philosopher is not the useful, practical, social being, who makes his philosophy shine through his actions; but a morbid fainéant, whose dreamy existence could scarcely be rendered supportable Madame de Staël may be added to the but by the absorbing illusions of mono- number of those great poets who are mania. Her philosophy, she tells us, is poetical only in prose. The mechanical not insensibility. Yet "quand la philoso- difficulties of metre appear to have been phie s'empare de l'âme, elle commence, a clog to her imagination; and in none of sans doute, par lui faire mettre beaucoup moins de prix à ce qu'elle, et à possède, et à ce qu'elle espère." If this is not a tendency towards insensibility, we know not what that word can mean. She tells us "La philosophie, dont je crois utile et possible aux âmes passionnées d'adopter les secours, est de la nature la plus relevée." For the attainment and exercise of this

what would be called, in common parlance, her poetical compositions, (which are few) does she rise above mediocrity. But how brilliant is the poetry of her prose writings! It is difficult to cite instances; they are too numerous for selection. Corinne, perhaps, presents a greater abundance of examples than any other single work; but whenever the subject admitted poetical

adornment, there was it always found; some idea of their lamentable deprivation and even such subjects as did not invite it of moral taste, and the coarse and morbid -politics, for example, and metaphysical appetite for excitement which they tend disquisitions, were illustrated with the to pamper. Three of them are tales of Promethean fire of a poet's mind. It is suicide; and in the fourth, sentiments fano longer regarded as a startling proposi-vorable to suicides are expressed. In tion that poetry can exist without verse," Adelaide et Theodore," a mother waits and verse without poetry. The literature to give birth to her child; destroys herof every country will afford numerous self immediately afterwards, and dies, instances of this truth, sufficiently convin- pronouncing (as if that were enough!) cing to the minds of all who can feel what the name of the child she had so cruelly poetry really is. Our own literature af- abandoned. In Mirza, an African tale, fords many examples, high among which we are introduced to sentimental savages, are the names of Jeremy Taylor, and of such assuredly as are to be found in no Burke, poets who never wrote a line of realms but those of fiction. An unmarried verse-at least of none that deserves to be negress becomes romantically attached to remembered. The literature of France, Ximeo, a married negro, and when he is where conventional formalities subjected about to be sold, offers herself as a slave the imagination to severe trammels, is in his stead, that he may live happily with richer still in instances of this kind. If his wife, her rival. He, with equal genewe were asked who were the greatest rosity, declines the sacrifice; and the slave poets of France, we would assuredly say merchants are about to avail themselves -not Boileau, or Racine,--not Voltaire, of the romantic conflict, in order to carry or Gresset, or Delille-not those who had off both into captivity, when the governor executed most successfully a graceful "s'avance comme un ange de lumière," dance in metrical chains-not the accom- and exclaims, "Soyez libres tous deux; plished surmounters of verbal difficulties, je vous rends à votre pays comme à votre who constructed their distiches according amour. Tant de grandeur d'âme eût fait to the ingenious rule of Boileau, begin- rougir l'Européen qui vous auroit nommé ning first with the second line, and were ses esclaves." Both are set at liberty, and ever regardful or metrical etiquette in the Ximeo's predicament of a conflicting orthodox assortment of male and female double attachment, and double obligation, rhymes. No-the most poetical minds of the African marriage rite and the tie of France have been those whose capacities gratitude, is all conveniently dissolved by could not so successfully stoop to ingenui- Mirza, who "pour anéantir le souvenir de ties of so low an order. Fenelon, Buffon, son inconstance," commits suicide:-and St. Pierre, Rousseau, and Chateaubriand, we are left in doubt which of these two have been more truly poets than any recited acts of self-devotion-the volunrhymesters which France had produced tary encounter of slavery, or of death, is under the ancienne regime, and to this list to be accounted the most meritorious. In we can add no name which exhibits a Zulma, another tale of savage life and more striking instance of this fact than suicide, a young South American having that of Madame de Staël. killed her Spanish lover in a fit of As a novelist, Madame de Staël is less jealousy, and being justly condemned to entitled to admiration than as a writer on death, cheats justice by killing herself at politics and criticism. We have already the place of execution, and dies exclaimmentioned that the bent of her genius dis- ing, "je vais rejoindre Fernand dans ce played itself early in a successful predi- séjour où il ne pourra cherir que moi, où lection for subjects of a political kind. l'homme est dégagé de tout ce qui n'est Her early critical writings, the Lettres sur pas l'amour et la vertu;" and the act and Rousseau and Essai sur les Fictions, the exclamation are held up to our notice though faulty, were full of ability, and as admirable traits! Pauline is the hisgave ample promise of future excellence. tory of a woman, whose infidelities during But we cannot turn to her first attempts her first marriage are mentioned in the in novel writing without being sensible presence of her second husband, and the of a marked inferiority-without even statement is resented by him as calumny. feeling that they are destitute of promise She confesses its truth; nevertheless, he that works like Delphine or Corinne is engaged in a duel in which he kills his would ever proceed from the same pen. opponent. She dies of a fever, but with In 1795, she published four short tales, suicidal feelings, courting death as a relief, all bad in design and weak in execution. and exclaiming, "nous nous reunirons dans A statement of their subjects will give le ciel-ne pense pas qu'une imagination