RU RAL, adj. Fr. rural; Lat. rura, ruralis. Country; existing in the country, not in cities; suiting or resembling the country.

Lady, reserved to de pastor company honour, Joining your sweet voice to the rural musick of desert. Sidney. Here is a rural fellow, That will not be denied your highness' presence; He brings you figs. Shakspeare. Cymbeline. We turn To where the silver Thames first rural grows.

Thomson.

The summit gained behold the proud alcove That crowns it! yet not all its pride secures The grand retreat from injuries impressed By rural carvers, who with knives deface The pannels, leaving an obscure rude name, In characters uncouth, and spelled amiss. Cowper. RURAL ARCHITECTURE. The application of such architectural science as was then in practice, to the accommodation of the agriculturist, must have taken place at a very early period of human history. We have already (see the article AGRICULTURE) endeavoured to trace the history of agricultural improvements generally our business in this and the succeeding article is strictly practical; and will relate to the most expedient methods which have been suggested in modern times for farm buildings, and the general economy of a farm.

On the first of these subjects the reader may further consult the article FARM, where the laying out of farm lands, and the construction of the principal farm erections, are dwelt upon. In the present article, the smallest farm-house and farm-cottages will engage our attention; farmstables, buildings for the accommodation of stock, poultry-houses, barns, straw-houses, cartsheds, &c.

1. Of the smaller farm-house and farm-cottages. The smallest farm-house will be that in which the farmer keeps no servant, and cultivates a few acres. Such a house should consist of an entry or porch at the end, and ranging by the side of a dairy and pantry; a kitchen of good size, say twelve to fifteen feet square; a parlour of equal size; a light closet off the parlour and at the opposite end of the house to the dairy; tool-house adjoining it; staircase and cellar under; poultry-house, and three bed-rooms up stairs. The ground plan of such a house is given in Plate RURAL ARCHITECTURE, fig. 1.

A farm-house forming a medium between this and that of what may be called a professional farmer is given in figs. 2 and 3. Here the farmer is supposed to keep a servant, who is domesticated with him, and the poultry and tool-house are in the yard. It contains an entrance and stair (a); kitchen, closet, and oven (b); back kitchen (c); dairy (d); parlour (e); bedroom (f); with three bedrooms and a garret up stairs, and a cellar under.

In larger farm-houses the servants' rooms have been recommended to be quite distinct from the house. Where farms are large, and consequently a great number of servants wanted, particularly where they are unmarried, suitable and convenient rooms for sleeping in, and, where they find their own provisions, for preparing and dressing them in, are not merely

requisite, but of considerable advantage to the farmer, as well as the men, as they save much time, which would otherwise be lost, in going to their meals; besides keeping them together in a sober, steady state, ready for their different employments. In this way, too, the servants are a great deal more comfortable, and live far more cheaply than when they go to the publichouses to eat their meals, as is much the case in the southern parts of the kingdom. But inconveniences of this kind are probably the best guarded against by having such servants, when it can be done, in the houses of the farmers, in which cases the eating-rooms for them should be so placed as that a facility may be given of overlooking them. But the rooms for lodging in should, at the same time, be quite detached and distinct, such persons being frequently careless and negligent of their candles and fires, besides being irregular in other parts of their conduct. In whatever situations such rooms may be erected, the ground-floors should be formed of stone, brick, or some other incombustible material, while the upper ones are laid with plaster, as in some of the midland districts.

Mr. J. Wood, of Bath, has suggested cottages of four classes, for laborers, having from one to four rooms each. See his Series of Plans for Cottages. They chould be constructed, he says, on the following principles:

'The cottage should be dry and healthy; this is effected by keeping the floor sixteen or eighteen inches above the natural ground; by building it clear of banks,' on an open spot of ground, that has a declivity or fall from the building; by having the rooms not less than eight feet high-a height that will keep them airy and healthy; and by avoiding having chambers in the roof.

They should be warm, cheerful, and comfortable. In order to attain these points, the walls should be of a sufficient thickness (if of stone, not less than sixteen inches; if of brick, at least a brick and a half) to keep out the cold of the winter, or the excessive heat of the summer. The entrance should be screened, that the room, on opening the door, may not be exposed to the open air; the rooms should receive their light from the east or the south, or from any point betwixt the east and the south; for, if they receive their light from the north, they will be cold and cheerless; if from the west, they will be so heated by the summer's afternoon sun, as to become comfortless to the poor laborer, afte a hard day's work; whereas, on the contrary receiving the light from the east or the south, they will be always warm and cheerful. So like the feelings of men in a higher sphere are those of the poor cottager, that if his habitation be warm, cheerful, and comfortable, he will return to it with gladness, and abide in it with pleasure

They should be rendered convenient, by having a porch or shed to screen the entrance, and to hold the laborer's tools; by having a shed to serve as a pantry, and store-place for fuel; by having a privy for cleanliness and decency's sake; by a proper disposition of the windows, doors, and chimneys; by having the stairs, where there is an upper floor, not less than three

have a perpendicular direction, not having a space of more than fourteen or sixteen inches from the wall; the bottom being sparred, in order to let the seeds fall down through below, whence they may be removed by a sort of sliding shutter. These advantages may also be neatly and conveniently obtained by leaving niches in the walls for the racks, on which plan the spars will be equal with the insides of the walls. Where the niches and racks are made in the middle of the stalls, two feet, or two feet and a half wide, will in most cases be sufficient; they should, however, be carried down low enough to admit of a small box or drawer being placed under them, for the reception of the hay-seeds. Racks of this sort may likewise be placed in the corners of the stalls, and be made in such a way as that one niche may serve two stalls. And they may be placed in the angles of the stalls without having any niche, and may be made of a semicircular form. But, in whatever way they are formed, there should constantly be a division betwixt them, which is probably best made of deal. Where the racks are put in the corners of the stalls, it may perhaps be more advantageous to have them straight than circular; but, in which ever way they are formed, the farmer should always have a hatch fixed for each stall, as by that means a great deal of time may be saved in feeding his horses. If the above methods be adopted, it must be unnecessary to make a manger of the same width with the stall; as a box or drawer, sixteen or eighteen inches long, and twelve or fourteen inches wide, will answer every intention perfectly well. But it should be so contrived that it may be readily taken out and cleaned whenever it is fouled, or becomes furred with dirt. With the fixed mangers this can never be done.

There is another method of making stalls, which, as being cheaper and more economical, deserves to be regarded by the farmer: on this plan the stable has neither racks nor mangers; the head of the stall is boarded about three feet from the ground, having a space of about two feet from the wall, in which the hay is to be deposited, the horse pulling his hay from below, instead of drawing it from above; which is not only more natural, but prevents the waste of hay, much of which drops down and is lost when the horse eats from a rack. But even in this construction it will be necessary to have the bottom sparred within eight or ten inches of the ground, and a box, hopper, or hay-manger and drawer, so contrived as to receive the seeds of the hay: where there are double stalls, the boxes may be divided in the middle. Single stalls, where they can be conveniently made, should however always be preferred, as being much more safe and convenient in different points of view, both for the horses and persons employed about them.

The paving of stables is a matter of great importance, though it has been hitherto but little attended to: and whether the stall should have a slight declivity, or be perfectly level, has not perhaps yet been so fully considered as it ought. It would appear to be more natural and easy for these animals to stand and rest themselves on a level surface, than on one that is sloping, as it is

evident that the tendons or sinews of the pastern joints must be kept more upon the stretch in the latter than in the former case. The main difficulty in regard to a level stall has been the conveying away of the moisture; but this may be effected by paving the stall perfectly level, and leaving a small drain in the middle, extending within two or three feet of the upper end; but which should not be more than seven or eight inches wide at top, forming an angle at the bottom. The depth at the end nearest the head of the stall need not be more than three or four inches, having as much slope as can be conveniently given it backwards, in order that it may carry the moisture off quickly to the main drain, into which all the stall-drains should have a fall, and the moisture be discharged. And the small stall-drains must also be covered with a piece of good strong oak-plank, in which a great number of holes are bored, and which must be so fastened as to admit of its being readily raised up and let down; as by this means the drains may be washed, and kept clean and sweet, as often as they are found to be furred up and obstructed. Besides these, main drains must be made at the end of the stalls, or in some other convenient situation, for carrying off the moisture into the general receptacle. Where they are placed at the bottoms of the stalls, they should not be closer to the stalls than two feet, in order that the stale of mares may get readily into them, which would not be the case if they were nearer, unless the pavement behind the stalls was made to decline a little towards them. These main drains need not be more than seven or eight inches wide at the top; but they should be covered with plank, in which holes are perforated for conveying away the moisture and wetness. But, with the view of saving the expense of making main drains within the stable, a shallow open drain may be made in the common way, with which the stall drains may communicate by means of very small grates at the ends. And it should be observed that the pavements or floors of the stalls should have a very slight declination from their sides towards the drains, to prevent moisture standing on them; an inch, or an inch and a halfein the whole, will however be quite sufficient for these purposes.

In regard to the sizes of stalls, it may be noticed that they differ much according to cir cumstances; but four feet and a half in width are the least they should ever be made, and five feet are much better. The divisions between them should be high, so that strange horses may not see each other. But where stallions are kept, or young horses required to be left loose in a stall, they should be so enclosed as to be incapable of doing mischief. And, for these purposes, one or more stalls may be sparred to the top, or doors provided, which may be hung to the back posts of the stable. Where this last method is followed, the stalls serve extremely well for keeping different mares and their foals separate from others, as well as many other useful pur poses in the business of horse-management with the farmer.

The writer of the East Lothian Agricultural Survey has remarked that sometimes stalls are

made double; and, as farm-horses generally work in pairs, each pair that work together have one of these double stalls; for horses are social animals, and it is said they feed better, and are more cheerful, when they live in society. But even in this case it is proper they should be fastened to the opposite sides of the stall, and that each horse should have his own rack and his own nanger; for, although they may seem to have a very great attachment to each other, yet, if the dividing of their food is left to themselves, it is more than probable they will quarrel about it, and that the strongest horse will have the best share. But such farm-stables as contain only one row of stalls, with one horse in each stall, are, on the whole, the most useful and convenient; and if the stalls are sufficiently large, and the divisions between them raised sufficiently high, not with spars, as often is the case, but with boards closely joined, each horse will be allowed to eat his proportion of corn and hay equally, and allowed to take the necessary rest, without danger of being disturbed by a troublesome neighbour. The stable ought to be well paved, and of a sufficient breadth to leave a space of at least six or seven feet behind each horse, for a safe passage to the servants in hanging the harness upon the wall, &c. The pavement should decline very gradually from the horse's head backwards, towards the channel at his heels, which should also decline, in the same gradual manner, towards one end of the stable, where the urine may be received into a reservoir. Proper openings should also be left in the walls, for the purpose of ventilation; these should be fitted with sliding or flap-boards, opened in the morning, when the horses go out to work, and shut in the evening in this way the stables will be properly ventilated; and every risk of cold, from having these openings uncovered during the night, be avoided.

In some cases the racks are fixed about fourteen inches from the walls, with but very little, if any, slant; having their bottom parts laid with small spars, or thin narrow pieces of wood, in an open manner, so that the hay seeds can fall down through between them, and be received in a drawer or box, made for the purpose below, where they are capable of being drawn or taken out at pleasure. A small box, or trough, is placed in some convenient part, answering the purpose of a manger, and which is sometimes made as a drawer, to put in and draw out as there may be occasion. The divisions of the stalls sometimes rise pretty high at the head parts in the ordinary way; and, at other times, in a curving manner at the upper ends, from the tail-posts to nearly the ceilings of the stables; and flap-doors, the height of the lower parts of the divisions, are sometimes fastened with hinges to posts, or the walls behind the horses. In other instances, the racks are placed in half-circular niches or recesses in the walls of the stables, opposite the divisions of the stalls; each niche being made to serve two stalls, by having a division in the middle betwixt them; and the racks themselves are sometimes made in halfcircular forms. The same kind of half-circular racks are occasionally also put in the angles or corners of the stalls, without any niches; there

being divisions between them, so as that they may serve two stalls: but the racks, in these cases, have not always the half-circular form, but are made and fixed up in a straight manner. In all these cases, small drawers or boxes serve as mangers, for the horses to eat their provender out of, as may be necessary.

There is sometimes a hopper sort of contrivance in stables, where neither racks nor mangers are employed, which is broad at the top, and has about fourteen inches width in the bottom part; being sparred, in order that the seeds may drop through into a drawer made for the purpose below. In each corner there is a small box for corn, which serves as a manger; the hopper part being divided in the middle, so as to serve two stalls as hay-mangers. This is a neat and convenient mode in some cases, though rather expensive in making and putting up. There are still other contrivances in fitting up racks and stalls for preventing the unnecessary waste of labor and food, as well as to guard against the inconvenience of hay seeds falling into the eyes and ears of horses, which have been suggested by experienced farmers in other countries. In one set of contrivances, in this intention, the racks are placed in an upright manner, and the perpendiculars of them are made to fall on the inner edges of the troughs below, which have shelving leaves. In these cases, when the animals pull out the hay from the racks, the waste parts fall on the leaves, and thus slide down into the troughs, where they are secured from being spoiled by the breath of the horses; while the distance between the bottoms of the racks and the troughs is quite sufficient for the admission of the heads of the horses, so as that they may get at the hay which is dropped. The racks, in these cases, are two feet four inches in depth, and two feet at top from the edge parts of them; being planed within, in order that the hay may fall to the bottoms of the racks gradually, in proportion as it diminishes in quantity, and the animals be saved the trouble of a long reach, which they are often obliged to make in the stables which are fitted up in the old usual man

ner.

The animals are fed and supplied with the fodder from the entry, which is six feet in width; the hay being dropped through a trapdoor from the store-room above the stable. This plan is the suggestion of Mr. West, an intelligent North American farmer. Another plan of this kind has been proposed by Mr. Cooper of the United States, in which the racks of the stalls of the stables have a somewhat different construction and position, being formed with what are called flats, or thin strips or pieces of wood. In these the advantages are supposed to be very great, as the upright flats prevent the horses from wasting the hay, as well as from blowing upon it; and, besides, the animals are prevented from looking round, a habit to which horses are much accustomed when any person enters the stable; neither can they thrust their heads over the troughs, as the flats compel them to feed directly over them, without turning to either side. This mode of fitting up the stalls of stables may be found of much utility, in different situations and circumstances, in the management of both saddle, farm, and team-horses. At Holkham Mr

Coke has his mangers themselves, it is said by the writer of the corrected agricultural account of that district, plated with sheet-iron; and the front edges, which are rollers, covered with tinplates. The bottoms of the stall divisions are made of slate. It has also been found that for stables, as well as all other offices, those locks which have copper wards are the best, as being much more durable than any other kinds.

Stable lofts for saddle as well as for farm, team, and carriage-horses, are also fitted up with different sorts of machinery and contrivances for preparing and reducing the different articles of food, which such horses are to have, into the most proper, and economical forms. These are, for the most part, straw or chaff-cutters, bean, barley, or malt-crackers, and oat-crushing and bruising machines. Such contrivances are often of very great utility and convenience, when properly managed, and put up in such stable buildings, or the rooms connected with them; and particularly where other more valuable uses are to be made of straw, pea and bean-haum, and other similar materials, than that of merely littering animals. They are likewise useful in saving much labor, by their being always ready and at hand.

A lofty stable is recommended by White (Treatise on Veter. Med. p. 1), fifteen or twenty but never less than twelve feet high, with an opening in the ceiling for ventilation. The floor he prefers is brick or limestone, inclining not more from the manger to the gutter than an inch in a yard. Some litter, he says, should always be allowed for a horse to stale upon, which should be swept away as often as is necessary. This, with a pail or two of water, thrown upon the floor, and swept off while the horse is at exercise, will keep the stable perfectly clean, and free from offensive smells. The depth of a stable should never be less than twenty feet, nor the height less than twelve. The width of a stall should not be less than six feet clear. But, when there is sufficient room, it is a much better plan to allow each horse a space of ten or twelve feet, where he may be loose and exercise himself a little. This will be an effectual means of avoiding swollen heels, and a great relief to horses that are worked hard. With respect to the rack and manger, White prefers the former on the ground rising three feet high, eighteen inches deep from front to back, and four feet long. The manger, eighteen inches deep, eighteen inches from front to back, and five feet in length. The rack he prefers being closed in front. Farm stables in Scotland,' says the editor of The Farmer's Magazine, are constructed in such a manner that all the horses stand in a line, with their heads towards the same side wall, instead of standing in two lines, fronting opposite walls, as formerly. Those lately erected are at least sixteen feet wide within walls, and sometimes eighteen, and the width of each stall upon the length of the stable is commonly five feet. To save a little room, stalls of nine feet are sometimes made to hold two horses, and, in that case, the manger and the width of the stall are divided into equal parts by what is called a half trevice, or a partition about half the depth of that which separates one

stall from another. By this contrivance, each horse indeed eats his food by himself; but the expense of single stalls is more than compensated by the greater ease, security, and comfort of the horses.

It may be of importance to observe here that stables should be better lighted than is commonly the case, as the blindness which is so frequently met with among horses has lately been attributed, and not without probability, to an excess of the stimulus of light on their coming out of dark or dusky stables. Another practical hint.

Farm-stables are mostly, during the summer months, much exposed to the open air, the doors, wickets, or windows of them being very seldom shut, except at night, and then but rarely; the consequence is, that flies, which are attracted by the horse-dung and other similar matters, have very free access; but as it may commonly be observed that in such exposed stables, too, the spider is very prevalent, as is seen by the number of cobwebs, it may, of course, be unwise and improper to disturb or destroy them, and the insect should probably.be cherished in such stables, as it may save the horse from the irritation of a variety of troublesome enemies and disturbers. It has been observed by Mr. Vancouver, that, except in Ireland, where the metho of treating farm-horses is extremely bad indeed, those in the county of Devon have perhaps as hard measure dealt out to them as is any where to be met with in the United Kingdom. From the injudicious manner in which they receive the corn, that is occasionally given them, it is supposed, in some measure, a questionable point, whether it affords them a benefit, or, by diverting their appetites from the hay, pea-haum, or other sorts of straw, absolutely produces an injury and disadvantage, in consequence of the avidity with which they swallow the corn in an unmasticated or unchewed state. In order to rectify and remedy such improper modes of management in the stable, and other treatment of farm and heavy team-horses, a better and more desirable example, it is thought, can no where be found than that which may be drawn from the management of farm and waggon-horses in Pennsylvania and Maryland. These horses, it is said, perform journeys of 200 and 300 miles over the stupendous mountains of that country, with prodigious loads of wheat and flour from the interior, and wet and dry goods from the sea-ports to the different points of embarkation, at Fort Pitt, Red-stone, Charlestown, Wheeling, and other places on the Ohio River. Notwithstanding which, these waggon-horses, through the whole extent of that country, are, it is asserted, seldom seen in a less high condition than the brewers' and other large cart-horses in the metropolis of this country. The manner in which these American horses are sustained and supported, so as to perform these labors, is, it is said, generally by feeding them, in the stables and on the roads, with hay and straw chopped in short pieces about half an inch in length, with which is mixed about half a peck of rye, oat, and Indian corn-meal, to about two and a half or three pecks of hay chopped in the same manner. A feeding-trough, sufficiently large for four or