nunciation they strictly attend to accent, and hence the quantity of words is not not only disregarded, but often most grossly violated; and they have entirely lost that sweet modulation and variety of sound, which graced the lips of their ancestors.* Such is their neglect of ancient literature, that the New Testament, as well as the works of their own classics, have been translated for their use. The decline of their language has kept pace with the degeneracy of their manners: for in consequence of a neglect of composition, and inattention to the ancient models of elegance and purity, they speak a barbarous and coarse dialect. The descendants of Pericles and Demosthenes, oppressed by a despotic government, and immersed in bigotry and superstition, are ignorant of the pure phraseology of their illustrious ancestors; and it is a remarkable fact, that of the seventy different jargons, which are now spoken in Greece, that of the Athenians is held to be the most corrupt and barbarous. (De Pauw, v. i, p. 70.) The mixture of their language with the dialect of Turkey and other nations bears a striking resemblance to the magnificent ruins of marble temples, remarkable for exquisite architecture, which are seen in the streets of Athens to support the rude cottages and mean sheds of the Grecian slaves.

From the whole of this survey of the English, Latin, and Greek languages, we may form a judgment of the origin, progress, characteristics, and beauties of each; and we may be enabled to determine their respective merits. When we allow to the Greek all its due praise for harmony, copiousness, and that amazing ductility, by which it could express with ease, in derivative and compound words, new indeed, but perfectly analogical, every discovery in science, or invention in the arts; when we commend the Latin for its majesty, precision, and vigour; and when we hold up the classical writers in each as the best models of, learning and taste, let us not neglect to form a proper estimate of our own tongue. The English language deriving its stock of words from so many different sources, and very imperfectly understood without the aid of Greek and Latin, is energetic, rich, and copious. And, perhaps, if we were confined to the knowledge of a single modern language to the exclusion of all others, no one could be found better adapted to all the purposes of social intercourse; more capable of expressing the

• Monboddo. Forster on Accent and Quantity, p. 207. For an ele gant sketch of the political and literary state of Greece during her good and bad fortune, see Harris's Philol. Inquiries, c. iii.

general sentiments of the mind, or more deserving the praise, which we have, it is presumed on a due consideration of its comparative merits, assigned to it.

CHAPTER VI.

ELOQUENCE.

"NOTHING seems to me more excellent, than to be able to engage the affections, convince the understandings, and guide the inclinations of whole assemblies, and even to direct those inclinations from their original course into a new channel, by the commanding powers of eloquence. This noble faculty has in every free state, more particularly in times of peace and tranquillity, been always held in the highest esteem, and obtained the greatest influence. And indeed what can be a juster subject of admiration, than that amidst a vast multitude one man only, or a very small number, should rise superior to all others in the exercise of that power, which nature has equally bestowed upon all the human race? Or what is so pleasing to the ear, or so gratifying to the understanding, as the judicious and solid discourse delivered in elegant and polished language? Or what is so efficacious, or so noble, as to influence the people, the judges, and the senate, by the charms of oratory? What is so great, so generous, or divine, as to rescue the virtuous from oppression, and protect the unfortunate from injustice? Can any thing be more useful than to be always furnished with the arms which eloquence supplies to assert your rights and to repel the attacks of injury? And not to confine our observations within the limits of the courts of justice, or the senate-house, what is there in the midst of retirement from business more agreeable and entertaining; what better proof can be given of the refinements of a liberal education, than a flow of elegant and polished conversation? It is indeed the peculiar characteristic of our nature, which distinguishes us from the brute creation, that we can express our thoughts by language, and both enjoy and communicate the pleasures of social intercourse. Who therefore does not hold such an endowment in great estimation? and who does not think it an object of honourable ambition to surpass others in the exercise of that faculty, in which rational beings show their ascendency over inferior animals? But not to dwell upon in

considerable points, let us proceed to the most material. What other power than that of eloquence could have proved sufficiently efficacious to induce the scattered individuals of mankind to quit a rude and savage life in order to form regular communities? and what other power could have softened their barbarity by the refinements of civilized manners, or after states were founded, what other power, I say, could have restrained them by salutary institutions, and secured their prosperity and happiness by forms of government, and establishments of law? To close this subject, which is indeed almost inexhaustible, I lay it down as an indisputable principle, that upon the prudence and talents of an accomplished speaker, not only his own personal respectability, but the welfare of numerous individuals, nay even the safety of the government depend. I therefore earnestly exhort you, my young friends, to persevere in your present course, and to cultivate with incessant diligence the study of eloquence, for the sake of your own reputation, the advantage of your friends, and the prosperity and glory of your country."*

Such is an imperfect representation of the animated and luminous encomium, which Cicero, in the beginning of his celebrated Dialogue de Oratore, pronounced upon his favourite art. And to teach the best use of this noble faculty of speaking, and point out the method by which it can be made to answer the most important purposes, is the great end of the art of Rhetoric. It is evident that no study more fully repays the labour bestowed upon its cultivation, if we reflect upon the rise and progress of eloquence in the early ages of the world, and the great improvements which have been made in it both in ancient and modern times. We may recollect the extraordinary degree of perfection to which it was carried by Demosthenes and Cicero; and their productions which have come down to us give the most satisfactory proofs that they were consummate masters of their art, and that they excelled in it, not less by the extent and variety of their knowledge, than the brilliancy of their genius. In our own times we see the effects produced by rude and unpo

⚫ Cicero de Oratore. lib, i. sect. 30. Edit. Proust. And he has comprized the advantages of eloquence in another passage too beautiful to be omitted." Jam vero don ina rerum eloquendi vis, quam est præclara, quamque divina ! quæ primum effecit, ut ea quæ ignoramus, discere, et éa quæ scimus, alios docere possimus. Deinde hâc cohortamur, hâc persuademus, hâc consolamur afflictos, hâc deducimus perterritos a timore, hac gestientes comprimimus, hac cupiditates, iracundiasque restinguimus: hæc nos juris, legum, urbium societate devinxit, hæc a vita immani et fera segregavit." De Natura Deorum, lib. 2

lished eloquence upon the minds of the common people in the harangues of crafty demagogues, and the sermons of itinerant enthusiasts: it is evident therefore, what a powerful instrument of persuasion and utility it may be rendered, when placed in the hands of well educated persons, who to all the natur 1 advantages of voice, action, and abilities, which ignorant peakers may possess, unite the guidance of rules and an acquaintance with the best examples.*

Nor will a knowledge of the principles of Rhetoric, upon which the chief beauties of composition depend for their grace and effect, be of inconsiderable use to the hearer or reader, as well as the speaker. It will enable them to unravel the intricacies of composition in general, whether in verse or prose, to understand the principles upon which it is founded, and to form a right judgment of its merits.

If objections be ever started against eloquence, considered as a faculty, which may be made the instrument of evil as well as of good, it is obvious that similar objections may be urged against the exersise of the faculty of reason, as it is too often employed to lead men into error. But no one would think of bringing a serious argument from this abuse of the intellectual powers against the improvement of our understandings. Reason, eloquence, and every art most essential to the comfort of life, are liable to be misapplied, and may prove dangerous in the hands of bad men; but it would argue an excess of levity to contend, that upon this account they ought to be neglected, and held in no estimation. While the orator employs his talents, and practises the rules of his profession, in the pursuit of that end for which it was originally designed, the persuading men to good and virtuous actions, and the dissuading them from every measure that is dishonourable and vicious, nothing can be more excellent in itself, or more useful to society.

Rhetoric is the art of speaking and writing with elegance and dignity, in order to please, instruct, and persuade. Elegance consists in the purity and perspicuity of language. The former may be acquired by studying the most excellent authors, by conversing with the best company, and the frequent practice of composition. The latter consists in making use of the clearest and most intelligible expressions, in avoiding ambiguous words, affected brevity, perplexity of periods, and confusion of metaphors. Dignity arises from sublime thoughts, and noble and elevated tropes and figures.

*For the principal heads of this chapter I am indebted to that rich storehouse of knowledge, the Encyclopedia Britannica, article Oratory.

It may be thought unreasonable to fetter the mind by sys tems, and restrain the flights of eloquence by rules. But it is evident from experience and observation, that rules may greatly assist genius, provided they point out the right road, without confining the learner to a single track, from which he is told it is unlawful to deviate. They are undoubtedly necessary before practice gives that ease, which may enable him to trust to his own well-regulated exertions, and proceed without a guide.

To enumerate the rules of Rhetoric would require too minute a detail; and they will be best learnt from those writers, who both in ancient and modern times have obtained great reputation by their works upon the subject. Such are Aristotle, Cicero, Quintilian, and their faithful followers, Blair, Campbell, and Fenelon. To ascertain the leading principles relating to eloquence in general, it may be sufficient to consider its productions under four distinct heads.

I. The sources of argument.

II. The nature of style, and the ornaments of composition. III. The arrangement of the different parts of a discourse. IV. Propriety of action and delivery

I. THE SOURCES OF ARGUMENT.

I The basis of all eloquence is invention. It is this prolific faculty, which enables the speaker to form and combine such ideas, as are necessary for the statement, explanation, and illustration of his subject, with a view to conciliate the minds of his hearers, and engage their judgment and passions in his favour. A liveliness of imagination, and a quickness of thought, are great assistants to invention; and they who possess these happy gifts of nature, are found to be rarely at a loss for reasons to defend their own opinions, and to disprove those of their opponents. Of this prime faculty the most eminent orators and poets were in full possession; and we find that so far from giving us any cause to complain of barrenness of invention, they fill our minds with the abundant produce of intellectual fertility. This remark, among other instances, is particularly justified by the examples of Homer, Plato, and Cicero. To collect materials for the employment of genius, must necessarily form the great business of life. Invention, strictly speaking, implies discovery rather than creation, and must be understood to signify new combinations of those images, which had been previously stored in the memory.