in the neighborhood paid a truck-driver to haul away the nuisance. That is what I mean by lack of departmental co-operation. e. By Details One more means of definition may be cited: the method of details. In following this method, the general concept is elucidated by an analysis into the specific factors which constitute the whole. This analytical process may be applied to widely diversified classes of subjects, such as a view, a law, an action, a process, a structure, a principle, or an object. Anything which is separable into parts may profitably be subjected to detailed analysis if the speaker judges that the effect will be clearer or more impressive than that produced by a general statement. The following excerpt from Cardinal Newman's definition of a gentleman is a very good illustration of the method of details. "Hence it is that it is almost a definition of a gentleman to say that he is one who never inflicts pain. This description is both refined and, as far as it goes, accurate. He is mainly occupied in merely removing the obstacles which hinder the free and unembarrassed action of those about him; and he concurs with their movements rather than takes the initiative himself. His benefits may be considered as parallel to what are called comforts or conveniences in arrangements of a personal nature: like an easy chair or a good fire, which do their part in dispelling cold and fatigue, though nature provides both means of rest and animal heat without them. The true gentleman in like manner carefully avoids whatever may cause a jar or jolt in the minds of those with whom he is cast,-all clashing of opinion, or collision of feeling, all restraint, or suspicion, or gloom, or resentment; his great concern being to make everyone at his ease and at home. He has his eyes on all the company; he is tender toward the bashful, gentle toward the distant, and merciful toward the absurd; he can recollect to whom he is speaking; he guards against unseasonable allusions, or topics which may irritate; he is seldom prominent in conversation, and never wearisome. He makes light of favors while he does them, and seems to be receiving when he is conferring. He never speaks of himself except when compelled, never defends himself by a mere retort; he has no ears for slander or gossip, is scrupulous in imputing motives to those who interfere with him, and interprets everything for the best. He is never mean or little in his disputes, never takes unfair advantage, never mistakes personalities or sharp sayings for arguments, or insinuates evil which he dare not say out. From a long-sighted prudence he observes the maxim of the ancient sage, that we should ever conduct ourselves towards our enemy as if he were one day to be our friend. He has too much good sense to be affronted at insults, he is too well employed to remember injuries, and too indolent to bear malice. He is patient, forbearing, and resigned, on philosophical principles; he submits to pain, because it is inevitable, to bereavement because it is irreparable, and to death because it is his destiny." It is of course patent that the detailed organization of the above passage can hardly be paralleled in extemporaneous speech; but the striking effect of its finished elaboration suggests that in using any method of definition the speaker may profit greatly by being sure that the subject is clearly defined in his own mind. Furthermore, it is desirable that as far as possible he should determine while planning his address the methods he will use in defining the more important ideas. With a knowledge of the various means of exposition previously discussed, he may trust to impromptu explanation of matters of minor importance. D. SUMMARY At the opening of this chapter it was pointed out that no one detailed plan of procedure could be suggested for handling the wide variety of topics used by speakers. Certain general principles of construction, however, which apply under any circumstances, have been presented. It was emphasized at the outset that every topic should be elaborated with clearly defined substance, directed toward making a distinct and lasting impression on the audience. The first step advocated for this purpose was the selection of a main theme, or central idea. The next requisite proposed was the providing of leading points which definitely support the main theme. The third factor to be discussed was the methods of elaborating these leading points. They may be summed up as follows: (1) by citing specific examples; (2) by applying the principle of antecedent probability; (3) by using analogy; (4) by proceeding from effect to cause; (5) or from cause to effect; (6) by developing a point from the general to the specific; i. e., by deduction; (7) by employing narration or description; (8) by definition in the form of repetition, comparison or contrast, negation, concrete example, or detailed analysis. These eight methods, with the various modifications and combinations which will occur to the speaker in working up a given subject, provide adequate means for elaborating in substantial manner a wide diversity of topics. We may now turn to methods of arrangement which will further help the speaker to realize the ends sought in the body of the discussion. CHAPTER V ARRANGING THE MATERIAL Concerning arrangement, as was stated of subject-matter, it must be understood that no one method will fit all speeches. Nor is it likely that any one address will follow a single plan throughout the entire development. The speaker can ordinarily lay out the main headings, or "trunk lines," of a given discourse according to the one method which seems best calculated to carry his message as a whole. But in the arrangement of subordinate parts, he must feel free to employ such various methods as fit those parts. Some of these methods, which may be termed logical, are inherent in the particular kind of subject-matter discussed; others are based upon psychological relationships; still other methods depend neither upon logic nor psychology, strictly speaking, but are arbitrarily designed for special effects. A. LOGICAL METHODS OF ARRANGEMENT Arrangement based on cause and effect is used, as the name implies, when discussing causal rela |