trously. Brutus could tell the cobblers and carpenters of Rome to keep still and hear what he had to say, but Antony with his courteous explanation of his presence got much the better of the bargain. And what is of even greater significance, the average modern audience, in spite of points of similarity, is not to be mistaken for a Roman mob. But while it cannot be bullied, it is almost always favorably responsive to an appeal for a fair hearing; or to a statement of earnest desire to get at the truth of a vexed problem; or to a modest plea setting forth the speaker's qualification for venturing to discuss the topic; or to an expression of sympathetic understanding of the listeners' attitude toward the matter under consideration. Probably some of my readers are familiar with Henry Ward Beecher's successful opening appeal for "fair play" in one of his antislavery speeches, before an intensely hostile audience in Liverpool. After speaking briefly of his opposition to slavery, and of the Southern leanings he had encountered in England, he said: "If I do not mistake the tone and temper of Englishmen, they had rather have a man who opposes them in a manly way than a sneak who agrees with them in an unmanly way. If I can carry you with me by sound convictions, I shall be immensely glad; but if I cannot carry you with me by sound arguments, I do not wish you to go with me at all; and all that I ask is simply fair play." A similarly successful opening, which I recently heard, was at the occasion of a "preparedness" address by Major General Leonard Wood, U. S. A. His introductory statements were to the effect that no one was more earnestly desirous of peace than military men-men who had taken part in the making of war and were therefore most keenly appreciative of the horrors of war. From this he led into his central theme, a plea for preparedness in order to prevent war. Although the audience was largely composed of militant young pacifists, General Wood was able by beginning with expressions of sympathetic understanding of his listeners' attitude to gain a very favorable hearing. When a speaker approaches a hostile audience in one of the ways indicated above, he is usually able to gain for himself and his views at least an attitude of tolerance, without which he could not continue with any hope of success. F. SUMMARY This chapter has attempted to point out various specific ways of introducing a speech to meet the requirements of ordinary and special circumstances. It was first noted that a deliberate pause before opening gives the speaker a distinct advantage. It was then urged that he avoid the conventional apology, which fails to realize the aims of a good opening. These aims were shown to be best served by beginning with one or more of the following: a reference to attendant circumstances, a sincere compliment to the audience, a significant narration or description, a pertinent literary allusion, a reference to a timely remark or incident. After the opening, which is designed to interest the audience and foreshadow the central idea of the address, comes the presentation of the topic. It was suggested that such exposition be used at this point as the complexity of the subject or the nature of the audience requires. The specific means of exposition advocated, any or all of which may be used, were: a historical review, a presentation of the general situation existing, a careful definition of the terms constituting the topic, a succinct statement of the salient phases to be considered in the body. The speaker was advised not to weary his audience with superfluous exposition, nor to dwell on pleasantries when the audience is intense about the subject of discussion. For placating a hostile assemblage, an appeal for a fair hearing, a statement of earnest desire for truth, a modest claim of adequate qualification to speak, or an expression of sympathy with the views of the audience were proposed. The directions set forth in this chapter will, it is hoped, provide for effectively planned introductions. And ordinarily the speaker will be sufficiently advised as to the conditions which he will meet to enable him to proceed as he has intended. But he must always be prepared, when he appears before an audience, to alter his method of approach in case the immediate circumstances make a part or all of the intended introduction seem inauspicious. If, for example, an audience shows unexpected hostility, he must vary an opening planned for friendly listeners. Or, if he perceives, from vacant faces throughout the crowd, that his listeners are not as well informed as he had supposed, he must simplify his language and amplify his exposition. Again, if he has planned a leisurely or humorous opening and is surprised by an intense body of hearers, he should not hesitate to cut down his prefatory remarks to the barest essentials. In short, the speaker, following the suggestions laid down in this chapter, will plan his introduction to meet conditions so far as he knows them; but he will study his audience from the moment he faces it, and adapt his matter and manner as occasion requires. CHAPTER IV THE MEANS OF SUBSTANTIAL DEVELOP MENT In considering the methods of developing the discussion of a subject one must be guided by the fact that there are many kinds of speeches, aiming at various ends. It is therefore obvious that no one hard and fast plan of procedure for all addresses can be constructed. That would savor too much of the famous Procrustean bed, to which all captives were fitted by either stretching or lopping off their limbs. Our plan of procedure must be more elastic. But at the same time certain general principles of construction can be formulated which will help the speaker to realize the aims previously stated; namely: to emphasize the main theme, to elaborate convincingly and persuasively the leading points which support it, and to keep the sympathies of the audience keen and its interest rising. In order to effect these purposes, the essential thing which the student of speaking should strive for is clearly defined substance. How frequently at dinners, clubs, churches, gatherings of all sorts, |