feit the estate to the superior, and involve the ruin of the vassal and his family.

reverence.

These causes were to destroy the cordiality that existed between the lord and his vassal. The conditions of the fief were still obligatory, and the vassal could not renounce his ties without forsaking his importance. His property and subsistence fastened him to an enemy, whom he was to The vassal had to do military duties. With a cold heart he buckled on his armor, to follow, with reluctance, the march of his chief. Of old, it had been the ambition to carry all his strength against an enemy, that he might display his own greatness, and add to the magnificence of his superior. He now furnished unwillingly the assistance that he was bound to give. The fervor that he once displayed in advancing the ambitious plans of his lord

was to cease.

The contentions between the nobles and his vassals, was to work important changes in the structure of human society. The king had often designs of his own to carry out, it might be a new conquest, or to gratify splendor and magnificence, which would require aids from the nobles, the collection of which might be easier with disaffected vassals. The king, by favoring his nobles' vassals, strengthened his own power, and is the source no doubt of gaining uncontrolled power, and a cause of fiefs being hereditary to be held by annual rents and taxes, instead of knightservice.

PARLIAMENTS A RESULT OF CONQUEST THE DISPUTES OF KINGS AND NOBLES A CAUSE OF PARLIAMENTS-ORIGIN OF THE HOUSE OF COMMONS-AN AsSEMBLY OF MEN TO SAVE THEMSELVES FROM BEING PLUNDERED.

EUDALISM has displaced barbarism or rude society. Before it was introduced into England the rich and the great lived in stone houses, without glass in the windows, or plaster on the walls. The sleeping place was a recess in the wall filled with straw. Το hide the naked walls, in the Middle Ages the ladies hung up tapestry or embroidered cloth. The Bayeux Tapestry, is over four hundred feet long. The web is linen while the embroidery is woolen. It was worked with a needle, and executed with labor and care. This work is attributed to Matilda, the wife of William the Norman, and is a series of designs, illustrating the events of William's life, and gives us battle scenes, rural, and domestic life. Feudalism has changed this scene, and given to a few magnificent palaces, with papered walls, carpeted floors, frescoed ceilings, carved furniture, costly food and wines, waiting servants, grassy lawns, and sparkling fountains. These scenes are before the worker, and he wishes to possess them; yet they might never have existed had no force been employed, which is hunger and want, caused by idlers eating up the food of the

workers. Hunger and a sight of wealth are powerful motives to quicken the energies of man.

In sight of the glittering mansion are to be seen boys, who tie on their rags with ropes, which are all they possess. Some of these boys sleep in water pipes, the park roller, and in trees.* "A widow, residing in Robert Street, was found by some of her neighbors in a starving condition. She occupied a room to herself, and she was so far reduced in strength, that she could not cook food if she had abundance." To remedy the ills of life, men must be taught to practice useful labor. Legislation can not abolish the evils of life. To prove this it is only necessary to know. something of the history of legislation, and for what purpose it was introduced into the world. Many suppose that governments are to protect the weak; they are contrivances of men to enrich themselves at the expense of the toiler,

It was not to be expected that the blood-stained warriors of the conqueror could agree among themselves, or they could make a subjugated people submit to their unfeeling demands, hence the necessity of a parliament, which comes from the Latin word parley-to talk.

The original or first institution of parliaments is one of these matters that lie far hidden in the Dark Ages of antiquity. Their tracing out is a thing difficult and uncertain. It signifies a place where men meet to settle difficulties. King Alfred ordained for a perpetual usage: "That these councils should meet twice a year, to treat of the government of God's people; and how they should keep themselves from sin, and live in quiet, and do right."

There seems in early periods of time to have been a constant struggle between kings, lords, and the people to gain the ascendancy. This same disposition still exists. In * London paper. † Cincinnati Commercial, of January 17th, 1867

many countries the king rules without assembling parliaments. His word is law, from which there can be no appeal. The nobles are turbulent, and think themselves as good as the king, and they do not submit willingly to his authority. They court the good-will of the people to match the king. The king, on the other hand, grants the people all the favors he can so as to be able to rule the nobles. Parliaments are only compromises between kings and nobles to plunder the people, aided by unprincipled men who desert from the class that keep the race from perishing by useful labors. It is the soldiers and policemen that keep the people from ruling and obtaining the happiness that is their due.

William at first tried to rule his people without parliaments. His wars in Normandy required money, and the tenure upon which land was held was not sufficient to furnish supplies. This compelled William to call a meeting of his barons to obtain money from them.

In America, the land of freedom, is to be seen and felt the spirit of feudalism, which makes men so unequal in their condition. Look at Astor, his income is $3,000 a day. A farm laborer has to work six years to earn this sum, and it will take him fifteen years to save this amount. Another evidence of the spirit of feudalism among us, is to see, in large cities men, wearing a livery, with clubs in their hands. Another evidence is to see a large stone jail with a victim suspended on a gallows, to atone for a fault that would not have happened had better circumstances been thrown in his pathway. The miseries of mankind arise from a few growing rich, doing nothing and lessening the clothing and food of others who are industrious. Had the Fathers of the Revolution given to those who were willing to settle the uncultivated lands, a hundred acres and no more, and only to the cultivators, the painful contrasts that we see

in human society would not have been known or even felt.

This pleasing description of a colony shows that a community is better without ruling powers, who eat up the substance of the people and cause crime. "It was in 1604, that the French settled in Acadia, [opposite the state of Maine,] four years before they had built the smallest hut in Canada. Instead of fixing toward the east of the peninsula, where they could have had plenty of cod, they chose the Bay of Fundy. It is probable that the founders chose this situation on account of furs. At their first arrival in Acadia they found the peninsula peopled with savages, who were called Abenakies, and they were sociable in their manners, and became enthusiasts in religion. Whenever hostilities took place between England and France, the peninsula was attacked and ransacked by the New Englanders.

No magistrate was ever appointed to rule over them. No rents or taxes were ever exacted from them.* Their lands yielded wheat, rye, oats, barley, maize, and potatoes. The meadows were covered with numerous flocks. Sixty thousand head of horned cattle were computed to be there; and most of the families had horses, though the tillage was carried on with oxen.

The habitations, built entirely of wood, were extremely convenient, and furnished as neatly as any farm-house in Europe. The people bred a great deal of poultry of all the kinds, which made a wholesome variety in their food, which was in general wholesome and abundant. Their common drink was beer and cider. Their clothing was, in general, the produce of their own flax and fleeces. With these they made common linens and coarse cloths. Articles of lux

* This picture of happiness was universal over the colonies. Criminals, or poor people were hard to find; the change may be attributed to the introduction of the National Government.