for a time you will see him shovel the dirt and refuse, which he has swept up in little piles, into a wheeled cart which resembles a

huge can on wheels. His work is constantly interrupted by swiftly moving vehicles. You catch your breath, for a fast truck seems bearing down directly upon him. Without apparently turning his head he dodges just in time, and then resumes his sweeping and shoveling. If you should inquire at the office of your street cleaning department you would learn that the rate of accident among these men is pitifully high. If you have the

patience to wait a little longer, you will see a horse-drawn cartor perhaps a motor truck-draw up. The sweeper empties his cans in the large vehicle, and then off it starts on its way to the dumps.

2. FORMERLY COMMUNITIES WERE CARELESS WITH WASTES In the early days of our community history it was the duty of each householder to keep the street as well as the sidewalk clean in front of his premises. Thus a most important measure for maintaining public health was left to the care of the individual, who had to see to it that the street in front of his property was swept clean, and that all refuse was either carted off to the outskirts of the town or dumped into a near-by lake or river. We find the the sheriff of New York issuing this proclamation in 1747:

"Whereas, The Health of this City (with God's Blessing) greatly depends on the Freeing the Streets, Lanes, Alleys and

Docks, from Filth or Dirt, Heaps of Dung and Rubbish, and Oyster Shells, and Keeping them clean from such Nuisances; These are therefore, in his Majesty's Name, to require and command all and every of the Inhabitants of this City, immediately to clear away all such Nuisances, and to keep their Doors and Kennels clean and free from all such offensive Materials, or they shall be prosecuted for their Neglect, as the Law directs in such Cases. "'*

3. DISPOSAL OF WASTES IS AN IMPORTANT MATTER

Such a haphazard, inefficient method of handling wastes was often a large factor in spreading disease through the community. Disease germs thrive in all forms of filth, particularly in the summer, when the weather is hot. In order to maintain our community health at a high standard we must have our community corridors, which are our streets, well cleaned. The animal matter in refuse affords a breeding place for flies, and flies carry typhoid-fever germs. In dry weather bits of street refuse in the form of dust are blown about by the wind. They contain germs which cause diseases of the nasal passages, throat, and lungs.

The refuse of a modern community that must be safely disposed of, consists of garbage, which is the animal and vegetable wastes from kitchens, markets, slaughter houses, and manufacturing plants; dead animals; ashes, and rubbish, such as old papers, rags, bedding, clothing, furniture, cans, boxes, barrels, scraps of metal, broken crockery, and glass. Street sweepings, snow, and sludge from sewage disposal plants are also to be included. In a great city the amount of all refuse that must be handled and disposed of each year consists of approximately three-fourths of a ton for every man, woman, and child inhabit

ant.

In small communities garbage and street sweepings are disposed of by being carted out to waste and often marshy and

*"What We Should All Know About Our Streets," by Mrs. Julius Henry Cohen, page 3.

low land on the outskirts of the town, and dumped. Sometimes garbage is fed to pigs, or plowed into the soil, where it acts as fertilizer. In the case of large cities, the collection and disposal of wastes has become a more and more serious problem because of the constantly increasing quantities to be handled, and a problem closely connected with that of public health. Garbage, in particular, must be speedily disposed of, for if it is left to accumulate it decomposes and becomes a menace to health as well as a nuisance. It is the organic matter in garbage which causes most of the trouble. Maggots, the larvae of the housefly, are hatched in decomposing garbage, and we all know that flies are instrumental in spreading disease.

Also the greatest care must be observed that sewage does not contaminate the water supply. It is now a matter of common knowledge that sewage must either be emptied into a body of water large enough to dilute it so that it is rendered harmless, or else be purified before it is discharged into the outlet pipes.

4. STREET CLEANING

Community Cleanliness is a Modern Habit. The modern town or city is far superior in cleanliness to the town of medieval days. To appreciate the difference, turn to your history textbook and read of the conditions that existed many years ago. Vienna was perhaps the first city to have an official streetcleaning force. Most towns were content with filthy streets so deep in mud when it rained that walking was nearly impossible. The dirt and foul odors of medieval towns are proverbial. We have only to read of conditions such as these to congratulate ourselves upon our wide, sanitary city streets, constructed of stone blocks or of asphalt. But because of this very sanitary and solid surface we must have a force of street sweepers hard at work to gather and take away all refuse. Matter which might be absorbed by a dirt road must be picked up off a hard-surface pavement and carted away.

Cleaning Streets by Hand. The work of keeping clean the streets of a community is largely done by a force of hand

sweepers, men such as we have already described, with their brushes and cans. These men are each assigned to a certain district in the city, and given a definite number of blocks to keep clean. They are supplied with several cans. When a can is full of street sweepings, the sweeper takes it off the wheeled cart, places it on the sidewalk, and puts an empty can in its place. At certain intervals the wagons come and carry off the contents of his cans.

The Use of Machines in Street Cleaning. Many students of municipal affairs are advocating the use of fewer men and more machines in the work of keeping the streets clean. To be sure, no matter how careful the hand sweeper may be, he does raise a dust; and dust as we have seen, is usually laden with dangerous germs for passers-by to breathe. It has been proposed that a large scale vacuum cleaner be adapted for use in cleaning the streets. Such a machine would suck up the dirt, and raise no dust. It would also release many thousands of the street sweepers to other forms of labor.

A type of machine sweeper that is now in use is a rotary broom with either wooden or hard rubber bristles, controlled by levers, and hung on the back of a wagon. This rotary sweeper is used to supplement the work of the hand sweeper. Usually two or three such machines are operated together, preceded by a sprinkling machine which lays the dust. The street refuse, which is thus swept to the gutters, is shoveled up by the hand sweeper. Another machine sweeper is known as the "squeegee.' It is used to scrub as well as to sweep the street surface. The squeegee machine consists of a water tank connected to sprinkling devices which are placed immediately in front of a broom. The broom is made of strips of rubber fastened on a heavy roller. The water from the tank is thrown out close to the street surface with such force that the dirt is driven out. The broom behind this forcing jet of water sweeps the dirt aside. The hand sweeper, with his brush, shovel, and cart, finishes the job.

At periods of the day when traffic is lightest, as in the early morning hours or late at night, hose gangs attach hose to fire

hydrants, and turn streams of water on every square foot of street. The water carries the dirt down into the sewers.

In

cities where this method is extensively used it has necessitated far more frequent cleaning of the sewer "traps."

Snow Removal. One of the biggest problems of street cleaning in the northern cities is that of snow removal. A heavy snowstorm, if allowed to get a good start, can block traffic in a city to such an extent that public health and safety are seriously menaced. Under such conditions the breaking out of a fire may result in a serious conflagration, for the fire equipment cannot get through snow-blocked streets. Food shipments are held up, and shortage of supplies may result in discomfort if not danger to the community. The work of refuse removal is halted, for the carts and trucks cannot get through the streets. Garbage is thrown out into the street, or buried under piles of snow. When the thaw comes there is grave danger of disease. Because of such serious complications as these, most cities have plans carefully worked out to cope with such an emergency. Immediately the snow begins to fall, the snow-fighters begin the