BOTANY. INTRODUCTION-DISTINCTION BETWEEN VEGETABLES AND ANIMALS. P. WHEN We began our course a large piece, it still remains on Natural History, I pointed" chalk" but, if you cut a out the great difference between flower to pieces, the parts cana vegetable and a mineral. not live separately. (6.) Plants L. I remember, papa. We have fixed and limited sizes; know a vegetable from a mine- they cannot increase to any size. ral, 1st, because it has life. Ion. That is true! W. And 2ndly, it has organs to procure food, so as to keep up its life; for we found that the plant has not only to live, but to grow. We called such parts of the plant ORGANS OF NUTRITION. Ion. And, 3rdly, it has death. Everything that lives also dies; it perishes, and becomes dust again. P. True. When a plant dies, what must happen so that its species may not be lost? W. It must leave either seeds or young plants to grow in its stead. Of course, if the plants could not produce others in their place, there would soon be none left; we called the seeds ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION. Now I remember that these were the most important distinctions −(1.) Plants have life; therefore (2.) They have organs of nutrition. (3.) Plants have death; therefore (4.) They have organs of reproduction. P. I may as well add the other distinctions for you. (5.) The parts of plants all depend on one another; if you break off a small piece of chalk from P. Then, (7.) Their shapes are all fixed, and are enclosed in a covering, or skin; the surface generally is smooth and rounded-they have no regular planes and angles as you find in minerals. You may add, also, (8.) That plants are not entirely one substance; they have not only solid, but fluid parts; and the order in which these parts are mixed is fixed. W. But the greatest distinction, papa, is the life of the plant. Is it not? P. Yes; this is a truly wonderful matter, -the life, and the organs which sustain life. These "organs have their duties to perform, or, as we say, their functions. Think! Inside a very little seed is a most minute germ; and, as it is said, "this minute germ builds up the beautiful form and wondrous structure of the perfect tree with scarcely any other materials than water and air. With these it not only constructs its own stem, leaves, roots, and flowers, but (what seems yet more extraordinary) it imparts to its seeds the same power." Truly any plant is interesting. RECAPITULATION. (FROM WILLIAM I. TO EDWARD 1.) 21. I QUESTIONED you concerning the FEUDAL SYSTEM last week. We are going to watch the decline of that sys tem. Suppose I tell you of a principle before we begin-(you know very well what is meant by a principle).* It is a sure principle that anything, or any system, which is not true and just, will not answer long. It is "unsound," so that the work of decay soon begins, and it becomes rotten. Here is another principle, which is very similar. When two parties are acting unjustly and quarrel, often they both lose; and other parties, who are not quarrelling, gain the advantage. the people against the king. Thus both king and barons weakened each other (and got the people to help them), and the people gained strength. What was the name of that king? 22. There was another man who became king unjustly. He also put aside his elder brother, who was engaged in the crusades. So, because he had done wrong, and feared the people, he granted them a charter containing various privileges; he also granted privileges to the clergy and the barons. More than all, instead of marrying a Norman lady, he pleased his subjects by marrying a Saxon nun, called Matilda. Do you know that king's name? 23. In the times of these two kings, there were great wars in another part of the world. These wars were a great attraction to the barons of various countries; who were fond of chivalry and fighting. So, numbers left their estates, and some sold their property and went abroad. Thus the number of small baronies decreased, I will give you an instance. A certain man gained the crown of England by force, when he had no right to it. So the Norman barons said, "Your elder brother is the proper person to be the king!" and they quarrelled with him. Then the king, by fighting, weakened the barons, and the barons weakened the king; so the king to gain strength was obliged to please the people. He pro-and great changes took place. mised them permission to hunt What wars am I speaking of? in his forests; he raised a few Saxons to places of honour; and he said to them, "Stand by me against your hated Norman lords." The barons did the same thing to get the help of * Vol. i. p. 225. 24. But, I remember how, in the next reign, the barons gained power again. The king was an usurper-decidedly! King Henry I. had left the crown to his daughter Matilda. This the king knew, but he said that he was more fit to reign than a woman, and that he himself was William the Conqueror's grandson; accordingly he seized the crown. Thus, as before, the king had not many friends, and was not strong enough to rule the barons-who almost did just what they pleased. They fortified old castles, and built no less than 1,500 new fortresses. This time the people suffered; for all was disorder. The king was opposed by Matilda and some of the barons, while others took the part of the king. The barons made war on each other, and took their revenge by plundering one another's vassals. In what reign did all this happen? 25. Do you remember any of the cruelties they practised upon the people? 26. What was the name of the next king? Tell me why he was so powerful? 27. What did he do with the new castles to lessen the power of the barons? 28. To decrease the power of the barons, he was obliged also to get help from the people-what did he do to please them? What was the change he made?* 30. During the reign of Henry II., the class of people called citizens increased in importance. But in the next reign, the citizens were left at home to work and grow rich, and the nobles went abroad with the king; the king sold all he could possibly find to sell, and many barons sold all they possessed, and off they went to the crusades! Thus again the feudal system was weakened. In whose reign was this? 31. What unfortunate race of people suffered very much in this reign? 32. Tell me the name of the next king. He was the most cowardly and the worst of our kings; but out of his wickedness grew great good for the people. He treated the barons so badly, that they rose up against him. Then they forced him to establish the charters which his father had made, and to grant new privileges. The charter he signed, was the foundation of the English people's liberty. What was its title; and what was the name of the king? 33. Can you remember the 29. Henry II. was an ambi- name of the next king? He tious king, and he had, you may was as weak and foolish as remember, great possessions in his father, so the barons reFrance. He carried on wars in belled against him, and estabdistant parts. We find, there-lished the first House of Comfore, that for the sake of his mons. own convenience, and the convenience of the barons, he made an important change, by which he got the whole command of the army into his own hands. In this way he also did much to destroy the feudal system. 34. Give me your reasons for thinking that the House of Commons increased the people's power. How did it damage the feudal system? * Vol. ii. p. 167. ENGLISH TRAVELLER. MORE ABOUT THE LONDONERS-" SANITARY CONDITION." L. I WONDER What Mr. Young light into their houses. means by "sanitary condition." I have heard people talking about "sanitary reform." W. There! you are just like a girl, Lucy! Now, I can tell you, because I learn Latin at school. L. Well, what is "sanitary"? But the Government have lately found out that the sun-light belongs to all, so they have now abolished the window-tax. Poor people and rich people may have windows and light, as much as they please; and the Londoners have even invited all nations to visit them W. The Latin word sanitas in a palace made of winmeans health; so sanitary con-dows'!" dition means healthy condition. W. That is the Crystal PaL. That does not seem to be lace. What a good "sanitary sense! Let us read the letter:-condition" it must be in! "MY DEAR CHILDREN,"By the sanitary condition of a city, we mean the different circumstances which contribute to the health of the inhabitants. For instance, when folks have plenty of water, they can keep themselves and their houses clean and 'sweet,' as we say. Then they are more healthy. "And, when they have enough fire, they are not so likely to catch cold; then they are more healthy. "And, when they have plenty of light, it contributes to cheerfulness and happiness. Light shows up the dirty places. So, when people have more light they are more healthy. 66 Light! ah! that is a great blessing. A little while ago the Londoners had to pay not only for the gas-light which I spoke of, but for the light from heaven. They had to pay a tax for the windows, which let the liament to be passed in 1846, for establishing public baths and wash-houses, in which poor people may keep themselves and their clothes clean. These institutions have been very useful. 666 The sewers, also,' he said, 'relate to the sanitary condition of the city; for if all the unwholesome filth be not cleared away, it will make the air impure, and the people unhealthy. along, through winding drains, into the broad main-sewer; and there, in the dark, in company with all manner of filth from all manner of places, it rushes along, and rushes on, until it reaches - where do you think?" "I can't say!' "The RIVER THAMES. The fine old Father Thames has to receive it all; whether agreeable to himself or not. Ah, how it must spoil the flavour of his water! For do you know that 130 great sewers are all day long "The paving of the streets also relates to the people's sanitary condition; for if the foot-discharging their dirty conpaths be dirty and clayey, and tents into his "bosom." Every full of puddles, bad vapours day they pour forth about arise, which make the air im- 30,000,000 gallons, or 130,000 pure, and the people unhealthy. tons of filth. It is too much"The burial-places of the really. people also relate to this subject; for if dead men be allowed to rest in the cities with those who live, bad vapours arise from their bodies through the earth, spreading disease and the seeds of death in the air. ""Let us talk of the SEWERS first. The sewers of London are the most remarkable in the world. They extend to a great depth under the earth, and some of the main sewers are of enormous size. On each side of most streets there is a gutter, and at certain distances in the gutter there are iron gratings. Through these gratings the gutter-water pours on rainy days, carrying with it the dirt from the roads.' "And where does it all go to?' I asked. "Ah! where do you think?' said my friend-'it goes into the dark! Down it goes, gurgling "Those who think much about 'sanitary reform,' say that the noble river Thames should not be dirtied in this way, and that, instead of doing harm, this refuse might be made to do good. It is proposed that two vast "subterranean" canals should be dug one on each side of the river, and that by these canals the water should be conveyed far into the country, where it might be used to make the corn grow for all good people, and the grass for the sheep and cows. Would not that be a more sensible plan?' "There! I have written nearly to the bottom of the paper, and I think that my letter is long enough for any boy or girl to read. So I beg to leave off, and remain "Your affectionate friend, |