Several events tending to disturb the friendly relations of the United States with other countries occurred during 1864. Raiding parties were organized in Canada by persons claiming to be in the service of the Confederate States, for the purpose of liberating the prisoners of war confined on Johnson's Island, and depredating on the property of citizens of the United States. One of these parties, organized by one Bennet G. Burley, consisting of some twenty men, seized the steamer Philo Parsons, running between the city of Detroit and Sandusky, after she had left Kelly's Island in the State of Ohio. They then captured the Island Queen at Middle Bass Island, Ohio, where they put ashore all the passengers. While here they forced Walter O. Ashley, the clerk of the Philo Parsons, at the peril of his life, to deliver over his money. Burley was arrested, charged with robbery, and claimed under the Extradition Treaty; and surrendered after a hearing before the Recorder of the city of Toronto.

On the 19th of October a party of men from Canada, twenty to thirty in number, well armed, entered the village of St. Albans, in Vermont, robbed the bank in the place of fifty thousand dollars, stole horses enough to mount all the party, fired on a crowd of unarmed citizens, wounding three men, one mortally, and setting fire to one of the hotels. The whole transaction occupied only three-quarters of an hour, and the band immediately started for Canada, where thirteen of the marauders were arrested and confined at St. John's. As soon as the outrage was reported to the Canadian authorities they did every thing in their power to arrest the perpetrators; and Mr. Seward, on the 21st of October, expressed to Mr. Burnlew, of the British Legation at Washington, his "sincere satisfaction" with their proceedings. Mr. Seward regarded the outrage as a deliberate attempt to embroil the governments of England and the United States, and involve them in a border war. But he rejoiced that the officers and agents on both sides of the frontier had acted together in good faith, and with due respect on each side for the lawful rights and authority of the other. This, he adds, "is in entire conformity with the wishes of the United States." It should be added, that a great proportion of the stolen money was found on the persons of the raiders captured, and was taken possession of by the Canadian police. Lord Lyons, when the transaction occurred, was at New York, but immediately returned to Washington. The legal proceedings in the case of the prisoners were not very rapidly despatched, and early in November Mr. Seward speaks rather angrily of the requisitions for the offenders whose crimes were committed on Lake Erie, and for the burglars and murderers who invaded Vermont, remaining unanswered. In fact, the latter were discharged by Judge Coursol on a supposed technical defect in the instrument under which they were tried, released from custody, and the money restored to them. They

were thus discharged on December 14th, and again apprehended, and finally released.

It is proper here briefly to mention the revolution extensively produced in the science of offensive and defensive warfare, and particularly in the department of fortifications. The newly-developed powers of modern artillery, both as respects the greatly-enlarged calibres of siege and naval guns, and the application of the principle of rifling to guns of the largest calibres, have proved destructive to masonry forts, even when so constructed as to be regarded as impregnable. Fort Sumter, one of the strongest forts of its class ever erected on this continent, and Fort Morgan in Mobile Bay, also a work of great strength, were both completely reduced by artillery fire, the one from land batteries at a distance of from two to three miles, and the other by the concentrated fire of the naval squadron of Admiral Farragut. In the case of Fort Sumter this result was the more remarkable as after its capture in 1861 it was strengthened by all the resources known to engineering art, and its gorge wall, which previously was more than ten feet in thickness, was protected by an inner brick wall of twelve feet, and for a considerable portion of its height by a covering of sandbags on its outside. All its casemates were also strengthened, the traverses on its terre-plain enlarged, and every precaution possible made use of to make it impregnable. Yet seven days' bombardment at the long distances named, were sufficient to reduce it to a ruin incapable of bearing any important part in the defence of the city or harbor. On the other hand, the sandwork Fort McAllister effectually resisted the assault of the three iron-clads in March, 1863, and the sandwork Fort Wagner, though badly located, and not judiciously defended, yet resisted two vigorous and well-conducted assaults, a severe and almost continuous bombardment from Admiral Dahlgren's squadron, and a constant cannonade from heavy batteries on Morris Island, and was only abandoned when approached and mined by a regular siege, and was found to be but little injured. Fort Fisher, a more recent example of an earthwork of great strength, though situated too near the channel so as to be exposed to the fire of the monster guns of the monitors at short range, yet withstood with but slight injury the first assault of the squadron, which concentrated upon it a fire of 539 guns; and though it might have been silenced by the fire of the fleet at the second bombardment, would hardly have been captured but for the feint of a seaward attack, which called off the attention of the garrison from the actual assault by Terry's force.

From these and other trials of the comparative powers of resistance of masonry and earthwork fortifications, the ablest engineers of the country have come to the conclusion that the best material for fortifications in general is a pure quartz sand with natural slopes; and that where the batteries of fortifications are much exposed or can be approached within short

range, they should be protected by heavy iron plating.

Major-General Gillmore, who ranks as one of the highest authorities on this subject, regards the erection of revolving iron turrets in the centre of the channels of approach to large cities as a very desirable addition to their means of harbor defence, as combining the advantages of long range and wide field of fire.

While there has been so marked a revolution in the minds of military men in regard to the subject of permanent fortifications, a change almost as marked has taken place in regard to the method of giving or receiving battle. Heretofore, when two armies have been opposed to each other in the field, and neither of them disposed to take advantage of the defences of a fortified town, they have met each other on the open plain or slope of hillside or valley without fortification, and the fortunes of the day have often been decided by a dashing charge of cavalry or the sudden assault of infantry with the bayonet. Such was the case in the earlier battles of the present war; but the troops on both sides have learned that a barricade even of the rudest character will stop many of the balls, shot, and shell which are sent on an errand of destruction toward them, and at every halt for the night or for a few hours the men, before attending to any other duty, run up barricades of rails which they cover with earth, and thus protect themselves in part from a sweeping assault like those at Shiloh and at Stone River, which would destroy or capture thousands. The primary barricade is thrown up with wonderful rapidity, and is tolerably complete within five or ten minutes. If not immediately assaulted, the men proceed to perfect it by digging

a trench inside and throwing the earth outside, thus making the protection greater; by felling the trees and undergrowth in front and arranging it as an abatis; by palisades and wire entanglements, and by placing heavy logs on the top of the barricades for protection to the sharpshooters. During General Sherman's campaigns from Chattanooga to Atlanta, and from that city to Savannah, as well as in General Grant's campaigns in Virginia, these temporary fortifications were constantly erected; and in General Sherman's report of the Atlanta campaign he says of this practice: "The skill and rapidity with which our men construct them is wonderful, and is something new in the art of war."

Though but remotely connected with the subject of fortifications, yet as pertaining to the matter of coast defences, the introduction of stationary torpedoes as a subaqueous protection merits attention. In no previous war have they been used to the same extent as in this. Various forms have been devised, and the contrivances for exploding them at the right moment for destroying the vessels which approached them, have displayed a rare ingenuity. Though considerable injury has been done by them, five or six vessels having been destroyed, yet they cannot, on the whole, be regarded as successful, as not one in five hundred, and perhaps hardly one in one thousand, have accomplished the purpose for which they were designed. Their use as a means of harbor defence seems to be conceded as justifiable by all military authorities; and if they can be made more certainly effective, they will form a very formidable addition to the means of protection to the approaches to large cities.

THE naval operations in 1864 remain to be described. The rams built in England for sea service, and which excited much anxiety near the close of the previous year, under a conviction that they were intended for the Confederates, were detained and bought by the English Government. None of this class of vessels were therefore built in English ports and suffered to enter the service of the Richmond Government.

During the hostilities in which Denmark was involved, a ram was built in a port of France for that Government. On the return of peace this ram was transferred to agents of the Government at Richmond, and placed under the

command of Capt. T. J. Page, formerly of the U. S. Navy, and called the Stonewall. She made for the port of Ferrol, in Spain, and was there blockaded by the U. S. frigates Niagara and Sacramento. She subsequently escaped and reached Havana, and was there delivered to the Spanish government. During the year 1865, she was given up by the latter to the United States.

The cruisers were more numerous and exceedingly destructive. Previous to January 30, 1864, the number of merchant vessels of the United States destroyed by them was 193; tonnage, 89,704; value of vessels at $50 per ton, $4,485,200; value of cargo at $100 per ton,

The other merchant vessels (twenty-nine) were captured in Southern harbors and rivers, Of the vessels captured by the cruisers, seventeen were bonded, and all the others burned. During 1864 a few captures were made by the Alabama before she was sunk by the Kearsarge. The Florida, Captain Morris, appeared off the coast of Virginia in July and captured six vessels, and destroyed afterwards a number, and was finally captured in the harbor of Bahia by a U. S. steamer.

Three more cruisers also made their appearance during 1864, viz.: the Tallahassee, Olustee, and Chickamauga. The steamer Tallahassee in August visited the entire length of the coast of the Northern States, and destroyed thirty-three vessels in ten days, one of which was a New York pilot-boat. The steamer Olustee was an iron vessel of 1,100 tons burthen, schooner rigged, with two screws and very fast. Several vessels were captured by her off the coast and bound to New York in the month of November. The steamer Chickamauga also captured several vessels, which were valued at $500,000.

The most important rams for harbor service were the Tennessee and Albemarle. For the details respecting these and also the Confederate gunboats, see other pages.

On September 29th the steamer Roanoke, a passenger and freight vessel running between New York and Havana, was captured by Lieutenant Braine and some companions, who had come on board as passengers as the vessel was leaving Havana in the afternoon. The officers and crew were overpowered, made prisoners, and the vessel headed for Bermuda, where a pilot was called on board. Braine went ashore and brought on board a party, and the vessel put to sea, soon overhauling a brig with coal and provisions.

These were taken aboard, and on the next day a vessel was sent to take off the passengers. The transfer was made together with a quantity of cotton, and the steamer set on fire. The passengers and crew were taken into Five Fathom Hole, and the purser and first mate went ashore to have the Confederates as pirates arrested, which was done, but after a trial by the British authorities they were discharged. The Roanoke had on board $17,000 in greenbacks, and $4,000 in gold.

A correspondence relative to this affair ensued between the Governor of Bermuda and the Home Government, and with Mr. Adams,

the American Minister at London. The reasons on which Lieutenant Braine was discharged are stated in the following letter of Earl Russell to Mr. Adams:

FOREIGN OFFICE, January 21.

SIR: I have had the honor to receive your letter of the 21st ult. protesting against the proceedings of her Majesty's colonial authorities at Bermuda in the case of the steamer Roanoke, and enclosing copies of various documents relating thereto.

These papers refer to two different complaints. The one complaint is, that persons were enlisted at Bermuda with a view to make war on a State in amity with her Majesty. The other complaint is, that certain passengers proceeding from Havana in the United States vessel Roanoke, when five hours from Havana on their voyage, rose on the captain, made themselves masters of the vessel, destroyed island of Bermuda. The answer to the first comher, and were afterwards permitted to land on the plaint is, that sufficient evidence to convict the persons accused was not produced, and consequently they could not be convicted. The answer to the second complaint is, that the person arrested for a supposed píratical act produced a commission authorizing that act as an operation of war, from the Government of the so-called Confederate States, which are acknowledged by her Majesty's Government to possess all belligerent rights. (Signed,).

I am, &c.,

RUSSELL

Of all the systems adopted by the Federal Navy Department to accomplish the various and arduous objects rendered necessary by the outbreak of the war, not the least interesting is the manner in which an effective blockade of the Southern coast was secured. The length of coast to be blockaded was three thousand five hundred and forty-nine (3,549) miles. This is a greater extent than the whole coast of Europe from Cape Trafalgar to Cape North. The most serious attempts heretofore made by the great maritime powers of Europe consisted in endeavors to interdict trade at a few of the principal ports of a belligerent. The first steps of the department consisted in making every naval vessel available, recalling the foreign squadrons, increasing the force by building new vessels, and procuring for naval purposes from the merchant service every steamer which could be made a fighting vessel, and in enlarging the capacity of the navy yards, putting in requisition the foundries and workshops of the country for supplies of ordnance and steam machinery, augmenting the number of seamen, and supplying the deficiency of officers by selecting experienced and able ship; masters and others from the commercial marine. The next efforts of the department were directed toward securing several harbors, at comparatively equidistant points, as bases of operations for the several squadrons, where our naval vessels could receive their supplies, and maintain themselves at their stations and on their cruising ground without returning to northern ports for repairs and to refit. For this purpose various naval expeditions were organized. The first sailed from Hampton Roads in August, 1861, and captured the forts at Hatteras Inlet. This was followed, a few weeks later, by the capture of Port Royal,

which secured a commodious harbor for the ships of the South Atlantic squadron. Early in the spring of 1862 New Orleans was captured. Other harbors and places were from time to time seized and occupied. From the outset, the blockade has been so effective as to be respected by the nations of Europe, and to cause a constant complaint by the enemy of its exhausting severity. Wilmington was the last port captured, and here blockade-running was more successful than at any other.

At Wilmington alone, sixty-five steamers, the aggregate value of which, with their cargoes, scarcely falls short of thirteen millions of dollars, were captured or destroyed in endeavoring to enter or escape.

On the interior rivers of the country the department also early commenced to put afloat a large fleet. It comprised more than one hundred vessels. They were to a great extent boats that had been employed in the carrying

trade, but which were purchased, strengthened, and fitted for war purposes. They were necessarily inferior to naval built vessels in strength, lightly armed, and more liable to disaster. To insure a systematic and vigorous execution of the duties devolving upon this squadron, the waters traversed by it were divided into ten naval districts, each under the command of an experienced naval officer. The vessels in each district had their appropriate field of duty, but at the same time they were held ready to support each other when occasion required, and could be readily concentrated upon any emergency. The principal rivers thus traversed were the Mississippi, lower Ohio, Cumberland, and Tennessee. The effect of their operations on the Mississippi was to break up the combinations of the enemy, and sever their organizations. On the other rivers, peaceful citizens were protected and partisan bands disspersed.

....

The foregoing tabular statement exhibits the number and description of vessels that were constructed, or put in the course of construction, for the navy to the close of 1864. Some of them were built by contract; others by the Government, in the several navy yards. If there is added to the number those constructed under similar circumstances, and within the same period, that have been lost by shipwreck, in battle, &c., viz.: the sloops Housatonic and Adirondack, and the iron-clads Monitor, Weehawken, Keokuk, Indianola, and Tecumseh, the aggregate would be 210 vessels, 1,675 guns, and 256,755 tons. Picket-boats, and small craft built for especial purposes, are not embraced in this statement.

Various classes of vessels were constructed to meet the peculiar exigencies of the service. A class of small heavily-armed propellers was needed at the outset, and twenty-three were constructed as gunboats, after the type of the Unadilla, Pinola, and Wissahickon. They maintained a good reputation to the close of the war. They were well adapted for guarding the coast. A larger description was needed for ocean service, and four vessels of the class of the Ossipee, mounting each two guns of eleven inch, were built. There were also four vessels of slightly less tonnage constructed, carrying the same armament of which the Kearsarge is a type. The Shenandoah is a type of six vessels mounting each three eleven-inch guns, all of which sustain a high reputation. The heavy guns mentioned constitute the principal armament of the several classes named, but they each have in addition from two to six guns of less calibre. All of these vessels were screw steamers, suitable for sea cruising; but the shallow sounds and bays, the rivers and bayous, often narrow and tortuous, required a different class, drawing less water. To turn in these frequently restricted channels is difficult, and sometimes impossible; the necessities of the case, therefore, suggested the principle of a fighting vessel with a double bow and a rudder at each end. Twelve paddle-wheel steamers of this class, of which the Port Royal and Sonoma are types, were constructed. Others of the same class were the Sassacus, distinguished in the attack on the ram in Albemarle Sound, and the Metacomet, conspicuous in Mobile Bay. One of this class was sent round Cape Horn to San Francisco, where she is on duty.

Of the monitor class of vessels only two, the Dictator and Puritan, were proposed for seaservice. Four turreted vessels have been built of wood and cased with iron, thus differing from the original monitors, which are exclusively of iron. One of them, the Monadnock, performed her trips from Boston to Hampton Roads with entire satisfaction. Her draught of water was twelve feet, and with two independent screws she had a speed of ten knots. Four other similar vessels of a still more for midable and invulnerable character were com

menced. The only other sea-going iron-clad ships besides the two turreted vessels above mentioned, were the New Ironsides and the Dunderberg, a casemate vessel.

In its iron-clads the department experimented by the construction of different classes and sizes, both in wood and iron, propelled by one screw and by two screws working independently of each other. In its most recent constructions of the Miantonomah class, a wooden vessel with Ericsson turrets, a high rate of speed, perfect ventilation, impregnability, and the enormous battery of four 15-inch guns, were combined in a vessel of 1,564 tons, and drawing only twelve feet of water. These vessels were free from the disadvantage of fouling, which so greatly reduced the speed of iron ones.

In the steam vessels nearly every variety and type of engine, of valve gear, of rate of expansion, of surface condenser, of screw propeller, and of boilers, have been thoroughly tested.

As in previous years of the war the seacoast and inland waters of the United States were, in 1864, in charge of six different squadrons, viz.: 1. The North Atlantic Squadron, Acting Rear Admiral S. P. Lee, relieved October 12th by Rear Admiral D. D. Porter; 2. The South Atlantic Squadron, Rear Admiral J. A. Dahlgren, temporarily relieved between February and May by Commodore S. C. Rowan; 3. The East Gulf Squadron, Acting Rear Admiral T. Bailey, relieved in October by Acting Rear Admiral C. K. Stribling; 4. The West Gulf Squadron, Rear Admiral Farragut, relieved toward the close of the year by Acting Rear Admiral H. K. Thatcher; 5. The Mississippi Flotilla, Rear Admiral D. D. Porter, relieved November 1st by Acting Rear Admiral S. P. Lee; and 6. The Potomac Flotilla, Commander Foxhall A. Parker. The usual squadron in the Pacific was also maintained during the year, under the command successively of Acting Rear Admirals C. H. Bell and G. F. Pearson; while that in the West India waters was, as an organization, discontinued. A number of vessels were actively employed from time to time in cruising after rebel privateers and in special service; and small squadrons were also maintained in the Mediterranean and the East Indies.

The operations of the North Atlantic Squadron, which in the previous year were almost wholly confined to blockade duties, were sufficiently various and important in 1864 to call forth all the resources at the command of the Naval Department. Besides the blockade of Wilmington, which alone required a fleet double in size and effectiveness to the entire naval force in commission previous to the war, the inland waters of Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds had to be guarded against the formidable ironclads which the rebels had for a long time been constructing in the Neuse and Roanoke Rivers; operations on in concert with the army, were conducted in the James River; and in the latter part of the year occurred the terrific bombardment of Fort

an extensive scale,