how many years a variety of pear may live. Van Mons estimates that it may live from two to three hundred years. But I have remarked, he says, that the most excellent, beyond all others, least resist the ravages of old age. They cannot attain the age of half a century, without manifesting symptoms of decrepitude. The first of these symptoms is that of bearing less constantly, and the fruit ripening later. The decay of the wood, and the loss of the beautiful form of the tree, and the alteration of the fruit, follow at much later periods. The varieties that have existed but half a century, do not suffer from canker at the ends of the branches, nor from diseases of the bark; the fruit does not crack, nor is it filled with a hard substance, covered with knots, nor insipid or dry.These varieties can still be grafted on other trees, without their infirmities being augmented. It requires half a century more to render them worthless. It is painful to think that soon the St. Germain, the Beurre Gris, the Crassanne, the Colmar, and the St. Michæis, must submit to this destruction. None of these varieties succeed any longer in Belgium, except when engrafted on a thorn, and as espaliers, trained against a wall; but this success is at the expense of their commendable qualities.

Van Mons does not attribute the deterioration of fruit trees to their multiplication by repeated engrafting, but contends that natural and grafted trees deteriorate in the same mauner and with the same rapidity, in consequence merely of their age. He discovered in an old garden of the Capuchins, the parent tree of the Bergamote de la Pentacote, an old pear. All the trees grafted from it are affected with canker, in slightly moist land, and the fruit is small, cracks when growing in the open air, is covered with black spots, which communicate a bitter taste, and no longer succeeds, but when trained as an espalier along a wall. The parent tree was infected with all the evils found in those grafted from the same variety. He took suckers from the roots and scions at the same time, which he grafted on other stocks, and the trees produced by both were deterior. ated in the same degree and manner as those which have been for a long time multiplied by the graft. Poiteau, the admirer and panegyrist of Van Mons, thinks, however, that this rapid deterioration of fruit trees may be somewhat delayed if scions be always taken from the most healthy individuals, and inserted only into vigorous stocks.

Van Mon's method of raising fruit trees from seed was as follows. He left the plants in the seed bed two years; he then took them up, preserved and transplanted only the most vigorous, at such a distance one from the other that they could thoroughly develop themselves and fructify. He planted them about ten feet apart, sufficiently near to force them to run up tall, and form pyramidal tops, which he states hastens their fructification. While waiting for his trees to produce fruit, he studied their form and physiognomy, and from long continued observations established the following prognostics of what they may become from their different exterior characteristics.

1. Prognostics of a favourable augury.-A good form, smooth and slightly shining bark, a regular distribution of the branches in proportion to the height of the tree; aunual shoots bent, striated, a little twisted, and breaking clear without splinters, thorns long and garuished with eyes or buds nearly their whole length; eyes or buds plump, not divergent, red, or grizzled; leaves smooth, of a mean size, crimped on the side of the middle nerve, borne on petioles (the stem of the leaf) rather long than short, the youngest in the spring remaining a long time directly against the bud, the others expanded hollowed into a gutter, from the bottom towards the top, but not their whole length.

2. Bad prognostics.-Branches and twigs confused, protruding like those of the hornbeam, thorns short without eyes; leaves averted from the bud, from their first appearing small round, terminating in a short point, guttered their whole length. These characteristics indicate small fruit, sweet, dry and late, fit only for baking.

3. Prognostics of early fruit.-Wood large, short; buds large, and near.

4. Prognostics of late fruit.-Wood slim, branches well distributed, pendant, the shoots a little knotted, generally denote late, delicious fruit; with leaves round, point short, stiff, of a deep green, borne on petioles of mean length, are analogous signs, but less sure.

Van Mons remarks, that among the new pears which he has obtained, there are some which were several years in taking a fixed form; that several did not assume one for from twelve to fifteen years, and that others never did.

PROCESS OF MAKING BEET SUGAR.

THE attention of the public having been some time drawn to the manufacture of sugar from the beet, we earnestly recommended its cultivation to farmers as a profitable crop, and now give them the details of the process by which it is extracted; after examining the best authorities on the subject, and consulted several gentlemen of some practical knowledge and experience in the business, the result of our investigation is that the process is altogether more simple and less expensive than has generally been supposed. In describing the various processes in the manufacture, we have carefully avoided the use of chemical terms, and substituted language which we hope will be understood by every reader.

There are several varieties of the beet which yield sugar; but the Silesian beet is recommended as the best and most productive. This beet will come to maturity in any part of England. The soil most congenial to its growth is a light sandy loam, of good depth, and if free from stones the better. The land is prepared for the seed by deep ploughing and pulverizing the surface. This is best accomplished by ploughing in the fall, and leaving the land in furrows through the winter. In the spring, the land should be cross ploughed, and harrowed, and, if the soil be light, it will be prepared to receive the seed. The seed may be sown as early as the season will admit, broad-cast, or in drills; but ultimately, the plants should be from 12 to 18 inches apart. They should be hoed and kept free of weeds-at the second hoeing they should be thinned out, and but one plant left in the hill-the surplus plants may be transplanted to vacant places in the field.

In the extraction of sugar, the beets must be first cleaned by washing or scraping with a knife, and care be taken that all decayed parts be put off. They must then be passed through the rasper and be reduced to a pulp-the finer they are rasped the better, as it facilitates expressing the juice. The pulp must then be put into cloth bags, and have the juice pressed out by a screw press. In France they use the hydraulic press; but a cider, or other press, will answer the purpose, and be attended with much less expense. As decomposition commences soon after the beet is out of ground, and progresses rapidly, no time should be lost in converting them into sugar.

After the juice is expressed, and before is is converted into sugar, it must undergo four distinct and different processes. 1. Defecation. 2. Evaporation. 3. Clarification. 4. Con

centration.

Defecation.

The composition of the beet juice does not differ essentially from that of the cane-it combines with the saccharine matter small quantities of malic or acetic acid, wax and mucilage, which must be extracted before evaporation is commenced. The first process, therefore, is to purify the juice, which must be done by neutralizing the acid, decomposing the wax, and coagulating the mucilage, and hence is called defecation. All this may be done by heating and mixing with it the milk of lime in about the proportion of 46 grains troy weight to the gallon. The milk of lime is prepared by slaking quicklime with hot water, and reducing it to the consistence of cream. The juice must be heated to about 160 degrees of Fahrenheit, and the

milk of lime poured into it and thoroughly mixed by stirring with a stick. After it is intimately mixed, the stirring must be stopped, and the mixture suffered to rest for a short time. It must then be heated to the boiling point, which will throw the impurities upon the surface in the form of scum, when the boiling must be stopped. When the juice has become clear it must be drawn off from below by means of a cock, or the scum must be skimmed off from the top-care being taken in either case to effect a complete separation.

Evaporation.

The next process in the manufacture is to dissipate the water, which is done by "boiling away," as it is commonly called, but in technical language, evaporation. If in the process of defecation an excess of lime has been used, it should be extracted. This may done by a mixture of a sulphuric acid and water, in the proportion of one of the former to forty-four of the latter. This mixture, put in contact with the lime, causes an effervescence, by which the lime is thrown off, and the cessation of which is a sure evidence that the lime is neutralized. Some manufacturers say that a small portion of lime should be allowed to remain, and others that the whole should be neutralized. As practical men differ on this point, we may safely conclude it is not very material

The juice is boiled down till it is reduced to about one-fifth or one-sixth of its original quantity. For this purpose pans or kettles may be used; but it will be seen that those vessels which present the greatest surface to the fire, and give the least depth to the juice, will best facilitate evaporation. As the water evaporates, flaky substances will separate from the juice and collect in awhite foam on the surface, which must be skimmed off as it appears. To promote their separation, the boiling is commenced with a moderate fire, which is subsequently increased as they disappear. Sometimes the white of eggs beaten, or a little blood, is added for the same purpose. During the boiling, the juice will rise in froth and flow over the top of the pan, unless prevented by occasionally throwing in a small quantity of some fatty substance. Butter is commonly used, but tallow, lard, &c. will answer the same purpose. It not only causes an immediate subsidence, but hastens evaporation.

Clarification.

After being defecated and evaporated, the juice is yet in a degree impure, and the object of the next process is to separate it from its remaining impurities, and hence is called clarification. This consists in filtering it through animal charcoal granulated (burnt bones broken to grains,) and is performed in the following manner. Tubs, or vats in the form of those used for leaching ashes are made of wood or metal, and furnished with a cock inserted near the bottom. The size of the vats is immaterial; but those of the followingd imensions will be found most convenient-2 feet 8 inches deep-1 foot 8 inches diameter at the top, and 11 inches at the bottom. They may be four sided or round; but those made of staves and hooped with iron hoops we should think the cheapest, and on some accounts the best.

A strainer standing on legs, and covered with a coarse cloth, must first be placed in the bottom of the vat and filled with the charcoal-about 100 pounds will be necessary for a vat of the above dimensions. The charcoal must then be covered with another strainer and cloth, and the vat filled with evaporated juice, or, as it is then called, syrup. After standing long enough to leach through the charcoal, the cock must be turned and the syrup be slowly drawn off, and the vat re filled as fast as it is emptied. The charcoal must be changed twice a day; but it may be washed and reburnt; and thus prepared, it will answer for another filtration. This may be repeated until it is consumed.

Concentration.

The next process is to solidify the syrup, and hence is called concentration. To accomplish this it must be again evaporated until it is brought into a proper state for crystalization. As it is important that evaporation should cease as soon as it

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arrives at this point, Chaptal gives the following rules for ascertaining the fact: "1. Plunge a skimmer into the boiling syrup, and upon withdrawing it, pass the thumb of the right hand over its surface, mould the syrup which adheres to the thumb, between that and the fore-finger, till the temperature be the same as that of the skin-then separate the thumb and finger suddenly-if the boiling be not completed, no thread will be formed between the two; if there be a filament, the boiling is well advanced; and the process is completed as soon after as the filament breaks short, and the upper part, having the semi-transparency of horn, curls itself into a spiral. 2. The second mode of judging of the completion of the process is by observing the time when the syrup ceases to moisten the sides of the boiler, and then blowing forcibly into a skimmer which has just been immersed in it-if bubbles escape through the holes of the skimmer which ascend into the air in the same manner as soap bubbles do, the liquor is considered to be sufficiently boiled."

When the concentration arrives at this point, the syrup must be taken from the boiler and poured into large pans, for the purpose of cooling. The pans must be placed in the air, and the syrup occasionally stirred during the process of cooling, which will be completed in about two hours. On examination the bottom and sides of the pan will be found covered with a thick bed of crystals, having but little consistence; on the surface of the syrup, a crust will also be formed. To promote crystalization, or, as it is more properly called, graining, a thin bed of brown sugar is sometimes put upon the bottom of the cooling pan, in order to make a nucleus about which the crystalized matter may gather.

After the syrup is cooled and crystalized, or grained, all that remains is to separate the sugar from the molasses, and it is fit for domestic consumption or market. To effect the separation, moulds, as they are called, must be prepared in the form of defecating vats, with the lower end drawn to a point, or so near a point as to leave a hole of three-fourths of an inch in diameter. These may be made of wood, metal, or earthenware, and their capacity may be regulated according to the convenience of the manufacturer. Those used in the sugar factories of France usually are large enough to contain five or six gallons. They are also used in the refining process. Before using them, if of wood, they must be soaked several hours in water, and dried a short time before they are filled with syrup. Thus prepared, and with a cork in the hole at the point, they must be filled, or nearly filled, with crystalized syrup, and secured in an upright position, over a pan or tub of sufficient size to receive the quantity of molasses it contains. After standing from 12 to 36 hours, according to circumstances, the cork is withdrawn and the molasses permitted to drain off. It will at first drain off rapidly; but soon cease to flow in any considerable quantity. To hasten its separation from the sugar, which takes place slowly, the mass must be pierced with an iron spear, by thrusting it into the hole at the point, which will give it vent and cause it to drain off. This operation must be repeated as often as is necessary, and until all the molasses is extracted.

After having remained long enough to have the molasses run off, the sugar is detached from the sides of the mould with a knife, the moulds are set on the floor in a reversed position, and left for two or three hours-when, by lifting from the floor and giving it a shake, the loaf will separate from the mould by force of its own weight. The head of the loaf will retain a degree of moisture and a portion of molasses, and, consequently, should be cut off, and thrown into the juice intended for the next clarification. The molasses, also, when a sufficient quantity is on hand, should be again concentrated, in order to obtain all the crystalizable sugar it contains. By the foregoing processes the beet is converted into brown sugar, the kind which is consumed in the largest quantities in most families. In the manufacture of loaf, or lump sugar, there is another process called "refining," but being foreign to our present purpose, we omit it.

Gen. Char.-Calyx five-fid; carina transversely blunt; loment, with one-seeded compressed joints.

Spec. Char.-Leaves pinnate, ovate, smooth; racemes axillary; bracteas longer than peduncle.

Root perennial, creeping. Stem annual, seldom branched, upright, terminated by a raceme. Root-leaves on the flower

ing plant none. Stem-leaves few, alternate: leaflets from three to eight on each side, with an odd one, ovate oblong, blunt with a small point, entire, opposite, on short petioles, hirsute underneath when viewed with a magnifier, marked with lines by veins ascending obliquely. Stipules lanceolate, membranaceous, clasping, subaxillary, brown, often cloven above the middle into awl-shaped segments; those which are below the leaves are subimbricate and sheathing. Flowers eight lines in length, imbricate, pendulous, on short peduncles, varying in number, having no scent. Lower segments of the calyx gradually longer. Corolla violet-purple or red, seldom white banner spotted with white above the claw; that and the wings nearly of the same length; the keel shorter. Germ commonly red. Legume oblong, compressed, smooth, brownish, with from one to four roundish or oblong joints.

It is a hardy perennial, native of the higher Alps, rarely exceeding a foot in height, produces its spikes of pendulous flowers, which are of a most beautiful purple colour, in July and August.

Its size renders it a suitable plant for rock-work, on which it will grow readily, increasing by its roots, which are of the creeping kind.

HELIANTHUS MULTIFLORUS.
MANY-FLOWERED SUN-FLOWER.
Syngenesia Polygamia Frustranea.
Compositæ.

Gen. Char.-Receptacle paleaceous, flat; pappus two-leaved; involucrum imbricated, subsquarrose.

Spec. Char,-Leaves three-nerved, various; lower cordate, upper ovate; ray many-flowered; scales of involucrum lanceolate.

The Helianthus multiflorus, a native of North America, is a hardy, perennial, herbaceous plant, rising usually to the height of five or six feet, and producing a great number of large yellow heavy blossoms, which renders it a suitable plant to ornament the shrubbery or garden of large extent; the variety with double flowers is the one most commonly cultivated, and this we find in almost every garden; it flowers from July to September, and is propagated by parting its

roots in autumn.

This is a hardy plant of ready growth, will bear the smoke of London better than many others; if it continues in the same spot for a great number of years, the blossoms are apt to become single.

VINCA ROSEA.

MADAGASCAR PERIWINKLE.

Pentandria Monogynia.
Apocyneæ.

Gen. Char.-Calyx five-cleft; corrolla hypocrateriform, plaited at the orifice, with flat segments, truncated at the end; filaments at the end dilated into concave scales; glands 2, at base of ovary.

Spec. Char.-Stem erect; flowers twin, sessile; leaves ovate, oblong; stalks two-toothed at the base.

It rises to the height of three or four feet; the branches, which when young are succulent, become ligneous by age; the flowers, which appear early in the summer, produce ripe seeds in the autumn.

It deserves a place in the stove as much as any of the exotic plants we have in England, because the flowers are very beautiful, and there is a constant succession of them all the

summer.

ANTHOLYGA RINGENS. FLAG-LEAVED ANTHOLYGA.

Triandria Monogynia.

Irideæ.

Gen. Char.-Spatha two valved, flower tubular, with a ringent differently formed limb; stigma 2, simple; seeds nearly round.

Spec. Char.-Leaves ensiform, nerved; upper segment longest, stretched forward, the others recurved.

Bulb large, compressed, convex, concave beneath, covered with a fibrous tunic. Leaves many, limber, striated, equitant, downwards, upper ones gradually longer, midrib stiff. Stem roundish, strict, upright, scarcely flexuose at the rachis,3-4 feet high, about a third longer than the leaves. Spike pyraflowers 10-40, distich, almost imbricate, scentmidal-oblong; less. Tube 6-sulcate, generally twisted. Faux cylindricbluntly keeled underneath. Upper segment concave blunter, about the length of the parts of fructification, which are accumbent to it, the others acute, flat, much smaller, three alternate ones least, two lower lateral ones larger than these, but far less than the uppermost one. Anthers subsagittate-linear, dark purple. Capsule the size of a small cherry, bursting when the seeds are ripe; seeds deep yellow, roundish, pressed nearly into angles from mutual juxta-position.

This rare and beautiful plant flowers in May and June; requires to be kept in the stove and is easily propagated by offsets, which it sends out in great plenty; or by sowing the seeds in pots about the middle of August.

MASSONIA VIOLACEÆ. PURPLE-FLOWERED MASSONIA.

Hexandria Monogynia.

Asphodeleæ.

Gen. Char.-Limb of flower six-parted; filaments attached to the neck of the tube; capsule three-celled, three-winged, many seeded.

Spec. Char.-Leaves spathulate smooth.

The leaves are two only; the flowers grow in a rather dense, short stalked clusters, and are of a pale lilac hue, very remarkable for their long, slender, gently swelling tube, or nectary, their minute bracteas, and unequal stamens.

The Massonias are all rather tender, and require the same situation as Hæmanthus, &c. that is, a dry stove; they are natives of the Cape of Good Hope, or, at least, grow within that point of Africa generally so called, but at some distance from Cape Town, near a mountain (according to Thunberg of the name of Bocklands Beig. The root of this species is very subject to rot when the leaves are decayed, if watered at that time; therefore, like the Ixias, should be put aside or taken out of the pot two or three months, after flowering It is very difficult to propagate, as the seeds are seldom perfected, and rarely make any offsets; flowering in September. It appears to thrive best in a mixture of peat and sandy loam.