discourse of his composing, wherein he had set forth the reasons and measures of Socrates in all their light, and interspersed the whole with tender and pathetic strokes, capable of moving the most obdurate hearts.* Socrates read it with pleasure, and highly approved it; but, as it was more comformable to the rules of rhetoric than the sentiments and fortitude of a philosopher, he told him frankly, that it did not suit him. Upon which Lysias, having asked how it was possible to be well done, and at the same time not suit him," in the same manner," said he, using, according to his custom, a simple comparison, “that an excellent workman might bring me magnificent apparel, or shoes embroidered with gold, in which nothing would be wanting on his part, but which, however, would not fit me." He persisted therefore inflexibly in the resolution, not to demean himself byegging suffrages in the low, abject manner common at that time. He employed neither artifice, nor the glitter of eloquence. He had no recourse either to solicitation or entreaty. He brought neither his wife nor children to incline the judges in his favour by their sighs and tears. Although he firmly refused to have any person besides himself to speak in his defence, and to appear before his judges in the submissive posture of a suppliant, he did not behave in that manner out of pride, or contempt of the tribunal. It was from a noble and intrepid assurance, resulting from greatness of soul, and the consciousness of his truth and innocence. So that his defence had nothing timorous or weak in it. His discourse was bold, iranly, generous, without passion, without emotion, full of the noble liberty of a philosopher, with no other ornament than that of truth, and brightened throughout with the character and language of innocence. Plato, who was present, transcribed it afterwards, and without any additions, composed from it the work, which he calls the Apology of Socrates, one of the most consummate masterpieces of antiquity. I shall here make an extract from it.

66

Upon the day assigned, the proceeding commenced in the usual forms. The parties appeared before the judges, and Melitus spoke. The worse his cause, and the less provided it was with proofs, the more occasion he had for address and art to cover its weakness. He omitted nothing that might render the adverse party odious; and instead of reasons, which could not but fail him, he substituted the delusive glitter of a lively and pompous eloquence. Socrates, in observing that he could not tell what impression the discourse of his accusers might make upon the judges, owns, that for his part he scarcely knew himself, they had given such artful colouring and plausibility to their arguments, though there was not the least word of truth in all they had advanced. I have already said, that their accusation consisted of two heads. The first regarded religion, and stated that Socrates inquired, out of an impious curiosity, into what passed in the heavens, and in the bowels of the earth; that he denied the gods adored by his country, and endeavoured to introduce a new worship; and, that if he might be believed, an unknown god inspired him in all his actions. In short, that he believed there were no gods.§

The second head related to the interest and government of the state, and stated that Socrates corrupted the youth by instilling bad sentiments concerning the Divinity into them, by teaching them a contempt of the laws, and the order established in the republic; by declaring openly against the choice of the magistrates by lot, by exclaiming against the public assemblies, where he was never seen to appear; by teaching the art of making the worst of causes good; by attaching the youth to himself out of a spirit of pride and ambition, under the pretence of instructing them; and by proving to children, that they may abuse their parents with impunity that he gloried in a pretended oracle, and

*Quint. 1. xi. c. 1.

His et talibus adductus Socrates, nec patronum quæsivit ad judicium capitis, nec judicibus supplex fu t; adhibuitque liberam contumaciam a magnitudine animi ductam, non a superbia.-Cic. Tusc. Quest. 1. ì Plut. in Apolog. Socrat.-Xenoph. in Apolog. Socrat. et in Memor. Plut. in Apolog. p. 24. Socrates in reality did not approve this manner of electing the magistrates. He observed, that when a pilot, a musician, or an architect was wanted, nobody was willing to take him at a venture; though the faults of these people were far from being of the great importance of those errors which were committed in the administration of the republic.-Xenoph. Memorab. 1. i. p. 712.

believed himself the wisest of mankind: that he taxed all others with folly, and condemned without reserve all their maxims and actions; constituting himself, by his own authority, the general censor and reformer of the state. Notwithstanding which, the effects of his lessons may be seen in the persons of Critias and Alcibiades, his most intimate friends, who have done great mischiefs to their country, and have been the most wicked of citizens, and the most abandoned of men.

This concluded with recommending to the judges to be very much upon their guard against the dazzling eloquence of Socrates, and to suspect extremely the insinuating and artificial turns of address which he would employ to deceive them.

Socrates began his discourse with this point, and declared that he would speak to the judges as it was his custom to talk in his common conversation, that is to say, with much simplicity, and no art.*

He then proceeded to particulars. Upon what foundation could it be alleged that he did not acknowledge the gods of the republic; he, who had often been seen to sacrifice in his own house, and in the temples? Could it be doubted whether he used divination or not, while it was made a crime in him to report, that he received councils from a certain divinity; and thence concluded that he aimed at introducing new deities? But in this he innovated nothing more than others, who, putting their faith in divination, observed the flight of birds, consulted the entrails of victims, and remarked even words and accidental occurrences: different means which the gods employed to give mankind a foreknowledge of the future. Old or new, it was still evident, that Socrates acknowledged divinities, by the confession of even Melitus himself, who in his information avered, that he believed in dæmons, that is to say, inferior spirits, the offspring of the gods. Now, every man who believes in the offspring of the gods, believes in the gods.

As to what related to the impious inquiries into natural things imputed to him, without despising or condemning those who applied themselves to the study of physics, he declared, that as for him, he had entirely devoted himself to what concerns moral virtue, the conduct of life, and the rules of government, as a knowledge infinitely more useful than any other; and he called upon all those who had been his hearers, to come forward and deny him if he did not say what was true.‡

"I am accused of corrupting the youth, and of instilling dangerous maxims into them, as well in regard to the worship of the gods, as the rules of government. You know, Athenians, that I never made it my profession to teach: nor can envy, however violent against me, reproach me with having ever sold my instructions. I have an undeniable evidence for me in this respect, which is my poverty. Always equally ready to communicate my thoughts either to the rich or poor, and to give them entire leisure to question or answer me, I lend myself to every one who is desirous of becoming virtuous; and if among those who hear me, there are any who prove either good or bad, neither the virtues of the one, nor the vices of the other, to which I have not contributed, are to be ascribed to me. My whole employment is to persuade the young and old against too much love for the body, for riches, and all other precarious things, of whatever nature they be, and against too little regard for the soul, which ought to be the object of their affection: for I incessantly urge to you, that virtue does not proceed from riches, but on the contrary, riches from virtue; and that all the other goods of human life, as well public as private, have their source in the same principle.

"If to speak in this manner be to corrupt youth, I confess Athenians, that I am guilty, and deserve to be punished. If what I say be not true, it is most easy to convict me of my falsehood. I see here a great number of my disciples; they have only to appear. But perhaps the reservé and consideration for a master who has instructed them, will prevent them from declaring against

Plat. p. 1"

Plat. p. 27. Xenoph. p. 703.

Xenoph. p. 710.

me: at least their fathers, brothers, and uncles, cannot, as good relations and good citizens, dispense with their not standing forth to demand vengeance against the corruptor of their sons, brothers, and nephews. But these are the persons who take upon them my defence, and interest themselves in the success of my cause.

"Pass on me what sentence you please, Athenians; but I can neither repent nor change my conduct. I must not abandon nor suspend a function, which God himself has imposed on me, now he has charged me with the care of instructing my fellow citizens. If, after having faithfully kept all the posts wherein I was placed by our generals at Potidea, Amphipolis, and Delium, the fear of death should at this time make me abandon that in which the Divine Providence has placed me, by commanding me to pass my life in the study of philosophy, for the instruction of myself and others; this would be a most criminal desertion indeed, and make me highly worthy of being cited before this tribunal, as an impious man who does not believe the gods. Should you resolve to acquit me, for the future, I should not hesitate to make answer, Athenians, that I honour and love you, but I shall choose rather to obey God than you;* and to my latest breath shall never renounce my philosophy, nor cease to exhort and reprove you according to my custom, by telling each of you when you come in my way, 'My good friend,† and citizen of the most famous city in the world for wisdom, and valour, are you not ashamed to have no other thoughts than that of amassing wealth, and of acquiring glory, credit, and dignities, while you neglect the treasures of prudence, truth, and wisdom, and take no pains in rendering your soul as good and perfect as it is capable of being.'t

"I am reproached with abject fear and meanness of spirit, for being so busy in imparting my advice to every one in private, and for having always avoided being present in your assemblies, to give my counsels to my country. I think I have sufficiently proved my courage and fortitude both in the field, where I have borne arms with you, and in the senate, when I alone opposed the unjust sentence you pronounced against the ten captains, who had not taken up and interred the bodies of those who were killed or drowned in the sea-fight near the island Arginusæ, and when, upon more than one occasion, I opposed the violent and cruel orders of the thirty tyrants. What is it, then, that has prevented me from appearing in your assemblies? It is that dæmon, that divine voice, which you have so often heard me mention, and Melitus has taken so much pains to ridicule. That spirit has attached itself to me from my infancy: it is a voice which I never hear, but when it would prevent me from persisting in something I have resolved; for it never exhorts me to undertake any thing. It is the same being that has always opposed me, when I would have intermeddled in the affairs of the republic; and that with the greatest reason; for I should have been among the dead long ago, had I been concerned in the measures of the state, without effecting any thing to the advantage of myself or our country. Do not take it ill, I beseech you, if I speak my thoughts without disguise, and with truth and freedom. Every man who would generously oppose a whole people, either among us or elsewhere, and who inflexibly applies himself to prevent the violation of the laws, and the practice of iniquity in a government, will never do so long with impunity. It is absolutely necessary for him who would contend for justice, if he has any thoughts of living, to remain in a private station, and never to have any share in public affairs.§

"For the rest, Athenians, if, in the extreme danger in which I now am, I do not imitate the behaviour of those, who upon less emergencies have implored and supplicated their judges with tears, and have brought forth their children, relations, and friends, it is not through pride and obstinacy, or any contempt

* Πείσομαι τῷ θεῷ μάλλον η ὑμῖν.

The Greek signifies, Oken of men, w agise åvogŵv, which was an obliging manner of salutation

Plat. p. 28, 29.

{ Plate p. 31.

for you, but solely for your honour, and for that of the whole city. You should know, that there are among our citizens those, who do not regard death as an evil, and who give that name only to injustice and infamy. At my age, and with the reputation, true or false, which I have, would it be consistent for me, after all the lessons I have given upon the contempt of death, to be afraid of it myself and to belie in my last action all the principles and sentiments of my past life?

"But without speaking of my fame, which I should extremely injure by such 3 conduct, I do not think it allowable to entreat a judge, no" to be absolved by supplications: he ought to be persuaded and convinced. The judge does not sit upon the bench to show favour by violating the laws, but to do justice in conforming to them. He does not swear to discharge with impunity whom he pleases; but to do justice where it is due. We ought not therefore to ac custom you to perjury, nor you to suffer yourselves to be accustomed to it; for in so doing, both of us equally injure justice and religion, and both are criminals.

"Do not therefore expect from me, Athenians, that I should have recourse among you to means which I believe neither honest nor lawful; especially on this occasion, wherein I am accused of impiety by Melitus. For if I should influence you by my prayers, and thereby induce you to violate your oaths, it would be undeniably evident that I teach you not to believe in the gods; and even in defending and justifying myself, should furnish my adversaries with arms against me, and prove that I believe no divinity. But I am very far from such bad thoughts. I am more convinced of the existence of God than my accusers, and so convinced, that I abandon myself to God and you, that you may judge of me as you shall deem best for yourselves and me."*

Socrates pronounced this discourse with a firm and intrepid tone. His air, his action, his visage, expressed nothing of the accused: he seemed the master of his judges, from the assurance and greatness of soul with which he spoke, without however losing any thing of the modesty natural to him. So noble and majestic a deportment displeased and gave offence. It is common for judges, who look upon themselves as the absolute dispensers of life or death to such as are before them, to expect, out of a secret desire, that they should appear in their presence with humble submission and respectful awe; a homage which they think due to their supreme authority

This was the case on this occasion. Melitus however had not at first the fifth part of the voices. We have reason to suppose that the judges assembled upon this occasion might amount to five hundred, without reckoning the president. The law condemned the accuser to pay a fine of a thousand drachmas if he had not the fifth part of the suffrages. This law had been wisely established, to check the boldness and impudence of calumniators. Melitus would have been obliged to pay this fine, if Anytus and Lycon had not joined him, and presented themselves also as the accusers of Socrates. Their influence obtained a great number of voices; and there were two hundred and eighty against Socrates, and consequently, only two hundred and twenty for him. He wanted only thirty one to have been acquitted; for he would then Have had two hundred and fifty one, which would have been the majority. By this first sentence the judges only declared Socrates guilty, without imnosing any penalty. For when the law did not determine the punishinent, and when a crime against the state was not in question, in which manner I conceive Cicero's terms, “fraus capitalis," may be understood, the person found

Plat. p. 34, 35.

† Socrates ita in judicio capitis pro se ipse dixit, ut non supplex aut reus, sed magister aut dominus vides retur esse judicium.Cic. 1. i. de Orat n. 231.

Odit judex fere litigantis securitatem; cumque jus suum intelligat, tacitus reverentiam postulat.Quiot. I. iv. c. i. Nearly one hundred dollars. Primis sententiis statuebant tantum judices damnarent an absolverent. Erat autem Athenis, reo dar . si fraus capitalis non esset, quasi pœnæ estimatio. Ex sententia, cam jndicibus daretur, interroga bains reue, quam quasi æstimationem commeruisse se maxime confiteretur.-Cic. 1. i de Orat. n. 231, 232

guilty had a right to choose the penalty he thought he deserved. Upon his answer the judges deliberated a second time, and afterwards passed their final sentence. Socrates was informed that he might demand an abatement of the penalty, and change the condemnation of death into banishment, imprisonment, or a fine. He replied generously, that he would choose neither of those punishments, because that would be to acknowledge himself guilty. "Athenians," said he, "to keep you no longer in suspense, as you oblige me to sentence myself, according to what I deserve, I condemn myself, for having passed my life in instructing yourselves and your children; for having neglected with that view my domestic affairs, and all public employments and dignities; for having devoted myself entirely to the service of my country, in labouring incessantly to render my fellow citizens virtuous; I condemn myself, I say, to be maintained in the Prytaneum at the expense of the republic for the rest of my life." This last answer so much offended the judges,* that they condemned him to drink hemlock, a punishment very common among them.† "I am

This sentence did not shake the constancy of Socrates in the least. going" said he, addressing himself to his judges with a noble tranquillity," to suffer death by your order, to which nature had condemned me from the first moment of my birth; but my accusers will suffer no less from infamy and injustice by the decrees of truth. Did you expect from me that to extricate myself out of your hands, I would have employed, according to custom, flattery and pathetic expressions, and the timorous and cringing behaviour of a suppliant? But in trials, as well as in war, an honest man ought not to use all sorts of means for the preservation of his life. It is equally dishonourable, in both, to ransom it only by prayers and tears, and all those abject methods which you see every day practised by people in my present condition."‡

Apollodorus, who was one of his friends and disciples having advanced to him to express his grief for his dying innocent: "What!" r plied he with a smile, "would you have had me die guilty?"

Plutarch, to show that only our weakest part, the body, is in the power of man, but that there is another infinitely more noble part of us entirely superior to their threats, and inaccessible to their inflictions, cites these admirable words of Socrates, which are more applicable to his judges than his accusers: "Anytus and Melitus may kill me, but they cannot hurt me.' As if he had said, in the language of the pagans,-Fortune may deprive me of my goods, my health, and my life; but I have a treasure within me, of which no violence can deprive me; I mean virtue, innocence, fortitude, and greatness of mind.§ This great man, fully convinced of the principle he had so often inculcated to his disciples, that guilt is the only evil a wise man ought to fear, chose, rather to be deprived of some years which he might have to live, than to forfeit in an instant the glory of his whole past life, in dishonouring himself for ever, by the shameful behaviour he was advised to observe with his judges. Seeing that his own times had but a slight knowledge of him, he referred himself from it to the judgment of posterity, and, by the generous sacritice of a very advanced life, acquired and assured himself the esteem and admiration of all succeeding ages.

* Cujus responso sic judices exarserunt, ut capitis hominem innocentissimum condemnarent.-Cic. 1. i. de Orat. n. 233.

It appears in Plato, that, after this discourse, Socrates, without doubt to remove from him all imputa tion of pride and contumacy, modestly offered to pay a fine proportionate to his indigence; that is to say, one mina, or about ten dollars, and that, at the instance of his friends, who had bound themselves for him, he rose in his offer to thirty minæ.-Plat. in Apolog. Socrat. p. 28. But Xenophon positively asserts the contrary, p. 705. This difference may be reconciled perhaps, by supposing that Socrates refused at first to make any offer, and that he suffered himself at length to be overcome by the earnest solicitation of his Plat. p. 39. De Anim. Tranquil. p. 475

friends.

Maluit vir sapientissimus quod superesset ex vita sibi perire, quam quod præterisset; et quando ab ho minibus sui temporis parum intelligebatur, posterorum se judiciis reservavit, brevi detrimento jam ultima senectutis ævum seculorum omnium consecutis.-Quint. 1. i. c. 1.