patient; and that even when these conditions are fulfilled it does not always produce super-men. Nor is it very effective with the pure pervert who has no strong incentive to alter his condition. But the pervert is generally also a neurotic, and analysis does cure neurosis. And even when the cure is incomplete, it starts a development that continues of its own accord. Thus analysis, even under present conditions, will raise the efficiency of many and create some super-men.

But there is no reason why analysis should always be confined to the re-education of those who have already gone astray. A start has been made with the analysis of children, and with the study of ways of preventing the development of those inhibitions that would otherwise distort the normal growth. If these problems are solved, all problems of sociology and ethics will solve themselves, and a society of super-men will rule the earth.

Thus, while enlightenment alone is dangerous, analysis alone is beneficial, and the combination of the two is even better. Will enlightenment destroy society before analysis has had time to save it?

MENTAL DEFICIENCY AND MALADJUSTMENT.

BY HENRY HARRIS.

I. A concept of maladjustment (pp. 285–286).

II. Mental deficiency in the light of that concept (pp. 286-287).

III. Biological considerations (pp. 287–294).

Biological determinants of intelligence.

The five groups of factors: hereditary, blastophoric, congenital, natal, and acquired.

The evaluation of such factors, their social implications, and indications for further research.

IV. Psychological considerations (pp. 295–299).

(a) Intelligence: its nature and estimation.

(b) Intelligence: its significance in mental deficiency. The reservoir of subnormality' on which ferments of psychopathy and harmful

social suggestion act, to produce a variable incidence of mental deficiency.

(c) The relationship of subnormal intelligence to psychopathy.

V. Social considerations (pp. 300-310).

(a) Social contributory causes of mental defect.

(b) Mental deficiency as a cause of social maladjustments.

(c) Social methods of treatment and control.

VI. Summary and conclusions (pp. 310–313).

VII. Bibliography (pp. 314-315).

I. A CONCEPT OF MALADJUSTMENT.

It is convenient to consider the adaptive process in man from three aspects: the biological, the psychological, and the social; and to think of maladjustment as occurring-predominantly at one or other of these levels. Be it stressed, however, that each level may be implicated and is probably so; that the division into levels or aspects is purely methodological, and that all three aspects are ultimately biological.

A possibly useful concept is that of 'adaptive man' in relation to each of these levels.

Biologically, man may be considered as a 'progenitor,' a collection of genes, a medium for the transmission of human qualities down through time.

Psychologically, man may be considered as an 'individual' with psychological and other adjustments and problems that are essentially personal.

Socially, man may be considered as a 'person' in the sense suggested by Burgess: that is to say, as an individual-not in a social vacuumbut with a social status, a member of social groups: in short, man considered as a social being. Further sociological subdivisions of this group might be made: man, for instance, considered as a 'partner' or 'mate,' as a 'parent,' and so on.

Using this concept as a criterion, a man may be said to be successfully adapted when he is the parent of good stock, has achieved complete and adequate self-expression, has contributed to the community in accordance with his capacity and has thus completed a trinity of harmonious achievement.

II. MENTAL DEFICIENCY IN THE LIGHT OF THAT CONCEPT.

Mental deficiency is-like most maladjustments-a function (in the mathematical sense) of biological, psychological and social factors: or, roughly speaking, of factors whose ultimate expression may be considered here in terms of intelligence, personality and social achievement. Of which, in this case, the first are the primary factors, the other two, secondary contributory factors.

Etiology of Mental Deficiency.

To express it mnemonically, mental deficiency is a function of BPS, of which in the individual, B is a constant, P and S variables. Where the defect in B is sufficiently great, as in idiots and imbeciles, that in itself constitutes maladjustment: or rather a complete failure even to attempt adjustment. Where the defect in B is less, as in the larger group of high-grade subnormals, maladjustment does not, of of necessity, arise without the intervention of either or both groups secondary factors: psychological factors such as emotional imbalance and psychopathy, or social factors such as inadequate or unsuitable training, unfavourable environment, unreasonable exposure to temptation and so on.

The Secondary Factors.

Indeed, as will be seen, it is the presence of secondary factors that determines in such cases whether a given individual will ultimately be classifiable as subnormal or as legally defective, that is to say, as an or maladjusted individual.

adjusted

Such a formula reminds us, at any rate, of two fundamental facts: firstly, that the immediate treatment of deficiency resolves itself into the modification of the variables P and S by appropriate training, environment and supervision; secondly, that the ultimate solution of the probler rests on the modification or elimination of the constant B.

A Criterion of Mental Deficiency.

Such a formulation of causal factors might be expected to suggest a criterion or definition of mental deficiency; presumably a threefold one. Biological causes which might help most to make such a definition explicit are too numerous and too little understood to be of use otherwise than in their ultimate expression as intelligence, of which a rough quantitative estimate may be made. A psychological criterion in terms of inadequacy of personality is desirable but not yet practicable.

Mental deficiency, being a lack of adaptability due primarily to intelligence defect, is perhaps most practically defined in terms of subnormal intelligence-due to innate or early acquired causes and not exceeding a fixed quantitative level-combined with inadequate social behaviour or performance. Social inadequacy in the young is conveniently considered in educational terms; in the adult, in economic and industrial terms.

Such a definition distinguishes the defective, on the one hand from the mentally subnormal who are socially quite adequate; on the other hand from the socially inadequate, who are either normal, abnormal or only slightly subnormal. It incidentally excludes the so-called 'moral imbecile.'

Medically, the problems of the subnormal and the defective are directly continuous: socially and legally, they are not so. The difficulty of a fixed quantitative level or maximum mental age is great and will be considered later.

III. BIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

The biological factors that determine and modify intelligence may be grouped as follows:

A. Plasmic factors-acting on the germ-plasm before cell-conjunction. 1. True heredity, Mendelian or otherwise, determining germplasm 'quality.'

2. Blastophoria, or environmental vitiation of parental germplasm, determining germ-plasm 'condition.' An egg, for example, may be of good intrinsic 'quality,' but in bad 'condition.'

B. Somatic factors-acting on the soma after cell-conjunction. 3. Congenital factors operating between cell-conjunction and birth.

4. Natal factors.

5. Acquired factors.

The relative significance of these factors has yet to be evaluated; especially of the two rival-but by no means mutually exclusiveplasmic possibilities, true heredity and blastophoria.

Heredity.

Goddard, Davenport and others endeavoured to prove that mental defect when not due to obvious accident or disease is inherited in a Mendelian manner, as a recessive unit. The marriage of two morons was found to produce less than 80 per cent. of defective children, instead of the expected 100 per cent.: to account for this, it was suggested that two or more recessive units were necessary. Heron, Pearson and later Myerson have vigorously denied the validity of the biometrical technique employed. Further work has failed either to confirm or rebut their results; and one can only conclude that heredity, Mendelian or otherwise, has not yet been proved responsible for mental defect. That it plays a part, however, seems strongly probable.

Blastophoria.

Many workers hold that the germ-plasm may be affected by noxious agencies such as alcohol, lead and disease toxins-while still in the parental body, causing a deterioration which may affect one or more generations, but which may disappear under favourable environmental conditions. Work strongly suggesting this has been done by Stockard, Guyer and Smith, and others: a similar process has been named 'induction' by the Mendelians, and on a clinical basis, Tredgold, Myerson and Wallin support such a theory.

Such a process, acting on the germ-plasm-and more especially on its nervous component, as Stockard's work seems to show-might well produce a simple uncomplicated mental defect, and is worthy of further investigation. Tredgold, however, also attributes to it a diversity of conditions such as mongolism, microcephaly, epilepsy, paralysis, hydrocephalus, porencephalus, sclerosis and deaf-mutism. For most of these it seems more reasonable to look, in the first instance, for factors— possibly the same factors-acting on the foetus rather than on the germ-plasm.