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present age, that the sentiment for scientific knowledge and adventure is the most vital form of religion amongst us. So far as this is true it would seem unintelligible—at least to those who, with Jung, take a wide view of the nature of the Unconscious-if an aspiration so powerful and pervasive did not find expression in dream and fantasy. Whenever it appears it will be apt to give to the imagery it animates that Promethean cast which one sees in 'the individual myth' of Wells' Clissold -the myth of the culture-hero, the creative rebel, in conflict with a tribal deity or an established Nature, hostile to innovation. The individual whose fantasy bears the impress of this situation may indeed. find himself falling back into the sense of infantile weakness over against the power he challenges. In the words of a modern poet he may complain

"And how am I to face the odds

Of man's bedevilment and God's?
I, a stranger and afraid

In a world I never made.

They will be master, right or wrong."

But even in time of such weakness the form of the myth' remains the same: the force before which he cowers is felt as an alien one, opposed to the ideal of his choice.

As tested by such forms of fantasy Freud's formulation seems wholly inadequate, when he accounts for the higher nature of man and his ideals by derivation only from the father-complex-the relation to the parent figure. Rather it would seem that in the images thrown up by the undirected working of the mind there is representation of sentiments fashioned through creative activity-activity which, in Jung's term, 'transcends' the influences both of ancestral morality and of personal cravings-and it may be that to such transcending activity the strivings even of the dreaming organism can at times contribute.

I have now completed my discussion of the dreams submitted, and, like Socrates in the Meno dialogue, I find that concerning some of the things I have said I am not altogether confident. Like him I would lay my stress of assertion upon the faith that "we ought to enquire,' and that knowledge may be gained-even in a region so deceptive and obscure as that of fantasy-by a union of daring individual intuition. and cautious self-criticism through comparison with the findings of others.

The points of my argument may be briefly summarized:

1. I have argued that the symbolism of the dreams mainly studied here is functional: they dramatize a conflict of dynamic factors—

tendencies or complexes-e.g. the dream containing the images of witch, dog, landscape, is interpreted as representing the conflicting complexes (very comprehensive in character, though determined in a particular manner) of fear, eroticism and an impersonal interest. Of material symbolism one example is given the child's dream of sheltering from bulls, interpreted as due to the fear complex finding expression in symbolic representation of its object.

2. I have suggested that we may find direct representation in dreams of obscure and pervasive tendencies such as that toward removal of tension and reinstatement of quiescence-Freud's Nirvana-principle.

3. We find evidence of complexes related to an archetypal image of power hostile to human values-Jung's devil dominant. The domination of the mind by such complexes is due to experiences which are not acts of identification with a potential self, but avertive reactions to what is felt as not-self.

4. Representation is found also of complexes, or sentiments, fashioned in part through the creative activity of the individual. It is argued that even in dreams there are ideals in some way influential, which cannot be derived merely from the relation to parents.

THE MECHANISM OF THE EMOTIONS1

BY MEYER SOLOMON.

THE problem of the emotions is indeed the great meeting place of psychology, physiology, psychopathology, psychiatry, neurology and internal medicine. In view of this overlapping and also of the importance of a proper understanding and interpretation of the exact mechanism of the emotions, one might expect this problem to have been solved long since to the satisfaction of all concerned. And so it is not a little surprising to find not only that there is no general agreement on the fundamental facts of the mechanism of the emotions, but also that there are still diametrically opposed points of view on just what takes place in emotion and on the order of occurrence of the various phenomena present.

In fact, there is not even a generally accepted sense in which the term 'emotion' is employed; so that, for the most part, there is a failure to define with clarity what is meant by the word. This may be due to the commonness of the experience in all of us. But when the term is used for different phenomena or manifestations by authentic writers on the subject, we cannot intelligently discuss the problem of the emotions, and especially their mechanism, without first defining in what sense we propose to use the terms to be employed.

Many psychologists are still controlled by the James-Lange-Sergi theory of the emotions, as may be shown by a survey of current psychological journals and books. But I need go no further than refer to the recent publication, under the editorship of Professor Dunlap (1) of the original contributions made by James and Lange to this problem. As these theories are not in harmony with the facts, it is somewhat puzzling to understand why they should be republished, grouped together in one volume, with no exposition of other views on the subject, just as if they were conclusive.

In recent years considerable progress has been made in understanding the mechanism of the emotions, and the various contributions from commonsense, psychopathology, experimental physiology and

1 Presented before the Chicago Neurological Society, Dec. 19, 1924. From the Department of Neurology, North-Western University Medical School.

Med. Psych. VII

20

clinical neurology are, in my opinion, conclusive enough to give us definite and fixed views.

Since the theory of the mechanism of the emotions is not merely of academic interest but also of considerable practical significance, it is especially fitting that those interested in nervous and mental disorders have well-based views on the true mechanism of the emotions.

Having been for many years convinced of the truth of the central origin of the emotions, and having already, in a previous communication (2), expressed very briefly views in harmony with those elaborated in this paper, I shall take this opportunity to present in its support some collected evidence, which, as I see it, is unshakable.

In this paper I shall avoid discussion of such questions as the presence or absence of finality or purpose in emotional reactions; the relation of emotions to reflexes, impulse, instinct, feeling, desire, wish, will, image, idea and consciousness; the exact anatomical and physiological location and pathways of the different parts of the emotional mechanism; the causes or objects of emotion, etc. Nor shall I even describe or analyze the characteristic traits of the mental state or of the bodily reactions present in emotions and the differentiation from ordinary exercise or voluntary activity.

I shall endeavour to present only such bits of evidence as are conclusive in showing the mechanism of the emotions.

DEFINITION OF TERMS USED.

By the term mechanism I mean the sequential order in which the main types of phenomena present in emotion take place.

Although the term emotion is used for the mental state alone by some, for the physiological or bodily reactions alone by others, and for both mental and bodily reactions combined by still others, I shall use the following terms with the definitions given:

(1) Emotional expression will refer to the physiological, bodily or corporeal reactions, excluding the cerebral reaction. This, in its totality, includes not only the mimetic reactions or expressions in the face and elsewhere, but also all the internal changes which take place within the organism.

(2) Emotional feeling will refer to the peculiar or characteristic mental state, complex in nature, present as an integral part of these conditions.

(3) Emotion will be used to include both emotional expression and emotional feeling, or the whole experience.

With this use of terms, we may, with Shand (3), accept as the definition and use of emotion the following: Emotions include all forces like joy, sorrow, anger, fear, etc., at all degrees of intensity at which they can be felt and recognized.

CLASSIFICATION OF TYPES OF REACTION PRESENT IN EMOTION.

In the sense here used, which is that of the average man in the street, emotion is a certain special type of reaction of the organism as a whole or as an integrated unit from the highest to the lowest levels. In other words, the total possible expression of emotional excitement includes reactions at all levels.

We may conveniently classify the main types of reactions present in emotions into three groups.

(1) Mental, psychic or psychological. This is the subjective ideational and feeling state, also called cerebral, central or inner mental state. It is the part felt in consciousness and is accessible to what may be called internal observation. Now, although I shall agree at once that cerebral reactions are also bodily, and that there is much confusion as to the terms 'mind' and 'body' and their synonyms or substitutes, I shall use the term 'mind' for the subjective state here mentioned, and the term 'body' for all reactions other than this purely subjective 'mental' state. It is this group of phenomena which the behaviourists disregard.

The physiological, corporeal, bodily or peripheral reactions divide themselves into two groups, skeletal and vegetative.

(2) Skeletal, somatic, locomotor, cerebrospinal, sensorimotor, projicient or voluntary system reactions. Here we group the external, observable expressions and modes of behaviour, seen outwardly in the expressions of the face, head, posture, trunk and limbs, sometimes called mimetic or mimic reactions, responses or expressions.

(3) Vegetative, visceral, sympathetic, autonomic or involuntary reactions. This comprises the deep, internal bodily reactions, including the ductless gland and other chemical changes. These are changes or processes taking place within the organism.

QUESTIONS TO BE ANSWERED.

The main questions which present themselves are:

(1) Which type of reaction is fundamental in emotion?

(2) Which reactions occur first in emotion? or, Where does the emotion begin?

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