examine which of these two opposite qualities is genuine and which artificial, we have to examine the direction of the basic lines (which are distinctly wavy) and the form of the a's and o's, which are open at the top, with only one exception in the word 'want.' We see now that the boastfulness, the unrestrained talk, the vivacity of the movements form the genuine part of this character, and that the backhand style is artificial; in fact only an imitation of somebody else's hand which

impressed the writer the more because it is in contrast to her own previous style which, as we can conclude from all the other symptoms of the same 'complex' on her present writing, must have been very slanting indeed.

These facts show that we are dealing with a case which in colloquial language is called 'hysteria,' but which is in fact a plain case of exhibitionism in a sublimated form. The writer is not hysterical, but plays consciously the rôle of a hysterical person. Probably she believes that

this is the best way to impress the people around her and to make them spoil and comfort her. Not for a moment can she stand the idea of being without a public, of not being the centre of attraction. She wants response at any price, exaggerates her movements of expression, the tempo of her speech, the 'smartness' of her wording, and her 'originality.' She is in love with herself and (never correcting any of her characters) is quite sure of herself. Writing with final emphasis of size and pressure, she feels fully entitled to insist on having the last word.

Allow me to send you the lorditions attached to the prize offered by the Empress of germany for the best Week as diphteria.

poris most respustelg B. von Dangerbert

Fig. 17.

§ 8. LIMITATIONS OF GRAPHOLOGY AT ITS PRESENT STAGE.

These cases are not intended to cover the whole field of those mental disorders of which we can detect a reflection in handwritings. They are given only as instances to illustrate in general outlines the graphological methods applied when dealing with mental disorders.

At the present stage of graphological research work we cannot yet claim to know the means for diagnosing more differentiated symptoms than those described above.

The delineation of case 14 might impress the reader as the most differential. Case 12 will probably appear as less distinctly described. My remark "yields to almost any outer impression" might strike the reader as a generality. And so it probably is. But so far we are unable to define this observation more distinctly. We see the effect of some impulses and of some inhibitions without being able to discover their

primary source. The reason why our observations are so restricted in this case is because the handwriting shows no marked difference in the shadowing of up- and downstrokes, so that the sensual life (libido) of this writer is not distinctly enough reflected in her handwriting.

The analysis of case 16 might seem even less illustrative to those readers who are interested only in the medical aspect of the problem, but it shows that in similar cases we can detect from the handwriting the non-genuineness of what, in colloquial language, is termed 'hysterical

behaviour.'

Psychiatrists in various countries collect handwritings of their patients, but so far they have not succeeded in discovering those features which occur in the handwriting of all patients suffering from the same mental disorder. They do not claim to know reliable indications in hand writings in cases of tumor cerebri, apoplexia cerebri, paranoia, multiple sclerosis, delirium tremens, epilepsy and paralysis agitans; they restrict themselves to describe the clinical symptoms of those cases and to reproduce at the same time the corresponding handwritings of their patients.

The chief difficulty is that practically all these diseases have certain features of handwriting in common, e.g. the trembling or the atactic strokes, the omission of whole characters, the superfluous doubling of others, and a very irregular spacing. Various other features which occur simultaneously in some of these handwritings are either not marked enough or are supposed to indicate quite different mental qualities of normal people,' so that a differentiation of the mental disorders mentioned above can so far not be determined from handwritings.

But though trembling strokes, ataxia, the omission or the superfluous doubling of characters, etc., are not useful as a differential diagnosis between disseminated sclerosis and paralysis agitans, etc., the whole group of graphological symptoms may prove useful in differential diagnosis between organic and functional diseases.

To understand why graphology did advance so far in characterological determinations, but not at all in pathological cases, one has to bear in mind the history of this discipline.

Graphology did not start from the examination of pathological cases as C. G. Jung did when he formulated his Psychologische Typen, but from collecting material of 'normal people' whose 'behaviour' was

be checked with their handwriting. As a matter of fact this characterological research work started in 1850, whereas the medical investigation of handwriting features began only a few years ago.

ABSTRACTS

Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases, vol. LXII, pp. 561-96, Dec. 1925.

HEINRICH KLÜVER, An Analysis of Recent Work on the Problem of Psychological Types. There being no agreement even on fundamentals among the authors, Klüver inquires as to the structure of 'psychological types' and the criteria of type determination. Jung, with his division of introvert and extrovert, deals with a subject-object relation, a mechanism that can be inserted or disconnected at will. He also supposes four basic mental functions: thinking, feeling, sensation and intuition, which affect the aforementioned general subject-object relationships. Furthermore, thinking and feeling are rational, intuition and sensation "dispense with the rational...in order to be able to reach the most complete perception of the whole course of events." He thus has eight types divided in respect to functional and subject-object criteria. The interplay of these groups is dominated by certain incompatibilities, thus when thinking is the leading function feeling cannot be even auxiliary (for its nature is opposed to thinking), but sensation and intuition can act as auxiliaries. Jung utilizes the Adlerian concept of psychical compensation (not for organ inferiority but for psychical one-sidedness). The intensification of a conscious one-sidedness may lead to strengthening of the counter position so that there may be real opposition between conscious and unconscious. A more normal way of overcoming one-sidedness is "a levelling up or supplementing of the conscious orientation," the unconscious compensation being less frequently met with. Applying these concepts to clinical medicine, he places hysterics among the extraverts and psychasthenics among the introverts. Jung overcomes the difficulty that in making this classification the symptoms are not always expressions of the conscious attitude (e.g. a patient might regard himself as belonging to the 'thinking type' while judgment of his behaviour would class him as of the 'feeling type') by holding that the subjective conscious psychology of the individual must be accepted as the basis; if the alternative course were chosen the personal bias of the observer would be a certain guarantee that his judgment would be due to his own individual psychology, "because there is nothing of which he is more informed than about his own unconscious." Jung is faced finally with the problem he seeks to avoid, because the classification of persons into these types can only be done upon interpretation of both the behaviour and the self-report of the individual. Jung believes "other equally 'true' explanations of the psychic process can still be advanced." It is impossible to demonstrate conclusively to what type any given individual belongs while such determining factors as the 'object' and the observer' are not clearly defined or delimited; further, his types cannot be determined on the basis of an individual case nor from the summation of individual cases, there is an element in the concept of the individual which points beyond the individual.

Psychodiagnostik, as understood by Rorschach and Klages, does not depart greatly from Jung's initial concepts; the former utilizes ink-skeletons' in a diagnostic apperception experiment and finds his subjects can be grouped

into an 'Fb-type' who give 'colour-answers' and a 'B-type' who give 'Kinaesthetic answers'; the Fb-type are practically identical with the extravert, the B-type with the introvert type. Jung and Rorschach disagree as to the constituents of the two types above mentioned but utilize the same name, e.g. for the latter introversion means 'the turning in towards oneself,' it may be active or passive (catatonia), fixed (schizophrenia) or mobile (normal), i.e. introversion may be a process or a state of mind.

Klages' 'Psychodiagnostik' is based on graphology, his aim is to establish a science of expression.' He holds that the distinction between 'actions' and expressive movements' is superficial and that it is wrong to assume that the latter have a higher symptomatic action than other movements. There are certain tendencies to expression' T, and certain tendencies to resist and to inhibit W, the relation of these two (the 'reagibility' R) represents the temperament: T divided by W equals R. (The average amount of T and Ware considered to be constant.) The 'personal reagibility' indicates the 'structure' of the character, not its quality. A sanguine or a phlegmatic temperament differ in R, so there is here a type-distinction in Klages' sense, but in a melancholic or a choleric type there are not different degrees of 'rea gibility.'

Jaensch (Marburg Institute of Psychology) tries to establish a relation between the eidetic type and 'general bio-types.' The 'eidetiker' are persons who, after looking at an object attentively for a while, do not immediately afterwards have an ordinary visual memory-image' but a 'perceptual memory-image' (Anschauungsbild, AB), they do not imagine they see, they are able to see the object after exposure or after a considerable lapse of time. Urbantschitsch held that this capacity flourished in pathological cases, Jaensch and his pupils made a survey to ascertain the correlation. The importance of this study for our present purpose lies in the fact that in Jaensch's view psychological type determinants may be selected for their capacity to represent developmental stages of the individual; he does not make comparison of developed personalities but of personality-developments. The 'perceptual memory-images' are placed in the hierarchy of memory between after-images AI and memory-images MI. He holds that the eidetiker differs somatically from other persons, and divides them into Basedow B and Tetany T groups, with intermediate BT types. The tetany group are nearer to the after-image group and the Basedow and Basedow-tetany groups nearer to the 'seen-image' group of individuals. The Basedows are characterized by the ordinary Graves' disease symptoms in mild form, the tetany people by strong excitability of the peripheral nerves to galvanic and mechanical stimuli. The eidetic theories are applied to philology, ethnology and psychiatry, Kroh holding that they are of service in distinguishing psychopathic types.

Kretschmer assumes a more or less definite relationship between psychical and physical. He finds two great types 'schizothymics' and 'cyclothymics' (these are general bio-types'). Between the schizothymics and schizophrenics are the schizoids, between the cyclothymics and the circular psychoses are the cycloid' people. His interest is in constitutional factors, i.e. the sum of all individual characteristics which rest on heredity. His concept is psychophysical, resting on the one hand on psychiatric classification, on the other on bodily measurements. Kretschmer is not dismayed by the not infrequent clinical difficulty in making a diagnosis between the two kinds of psychosis, and though he ordains for the physical examination a vast number of detailed