neurosis in 4, pilfering in 18, and sexual assaults in 2. The most marked feature is then in general morbid restlessness rather than serious demoralisation, but it is difficult to draw a line between the two. The demoralisation has certainly no relation to intellectual standards as estimated by tests as to lack of inhibition, so that any desired action is carried out without reference to possible consequences.

The type of misbehaviour is usually coloured by the previous experience of the children and in many instances seems to be due to a desire to get in the limelight irrespective of whether for praise or blame. A choir boy developed an irritating cough and at times pretended to be taken ill during service, a constable's son stole bicycles and when selling them gave his father's occupation on more than one occasion as a proof of his bona fides, another took a lady's reticule and hung it to an electric light standard in the entrance to a tunnel to disturb lorry drivers. Sometimes suggestibility is evident: a medical officer was explaining to some visitors that they needed to be careful as such children spit and bite, at the same time having his hand behind him. He was at once bitten by a boy who had overheard him. Sometimes the intelligence level is shown by the deed as when a boy went off with a horse left by the roadside, took it up to a police constable and wanted to sell it to him for

sixpence.

Many of the difficulties have no doubt arisen as the result of the treatment received by children subsequent to their illness. For the moment their general reactions have been reduced to a level corresponding to that of much younger children, and during this phase they need more care than would the normal child, but although all consideration is necessary the measures for care and control should be uniform and sustained. Lack of self control will be minimised where the consequences of a mistake are as inevitable as are those of touching a hot object. The dictum that so long as children find resistance in things rather than in human wills they will not become rebellious is even more material in the case of post encephalitis subjects than in normal children, and Locke's suggestion that the naughty boy should be reasoned with is shown to be even more erroneous. The post encephalitic child cannot be bothered to keep his attention fixed. In many of these cases a certain amount of observant disregard is undoubtedly necessary and Spencer's dictum as to leaving the individual to suffer the inevitable results of his actions is to be noted so long as these actions are not attended with immediate danger to life and limb. Nature inevitably punishes. Human treatment is variable. This variability is quickly noticed by the child,

who discovers that by rebellious conduct he may gain desired objects and blackmail his parents or guardians on an increasing scale. The convalescent child, like the normal infant, takes full advantages of its opportunities and the convalescent has behind him a somewhat greater experience of life whereby he can make himself a greater embarrassment. The parents of a child recovering from the acute stages of an illness, are apt to do too much. Frequently they may laugh and draw attention to minor phases of petulance, but later get tired as a result of the slowness of the convalescence and may punish the child severely for pursuing the same conduct which has previously been received by signs of amusement and toleration. The child quickly notes the difference in treatment, and on the basis of increased irritability there is built up a superstructure of neurosis. Sometimes this shows itself in a withdrawal of attention. In some cases the physical manifestations attending the patient's conduct is associated with some undesirable environment. This may be illustrated by the following cases:

W. J. Born in 1906. Suffered with encephalitis lethargica in 1918. His previous conduct had been good, but after his illness he was for a time somewhat spoilt. In 1919 there were complaints of his conduct and violent habits in school, coupled with frequent complaints of headache, when his behaviour was the subject of remonstrance. His work was very good but he became restless and fidgety and disliked ordinary school work. When examined at the age of 12 his responses were found to be well in advance of his age though possibly no advance had been made since his illness. Previously he had been in a high standard for his age. Later he became violent and took to stealing, on which neither punishment or remonstrances had any effect. As a result of subsequent lapses he was sent to an industrial school, where his conduct continued to be bad till he was told that he was not immune from corporal punishment. Under steady discipline he improved for a time until sent on a fruit picking expedition with the rest of the school. This he disliked and threatened to commit suicide. There was no continuance of such threats when they met with punishment and loss of privileges and he again improved. Transferred to an Army School for a time he did well, but on again meeting some petty difficulties he took to stealing bicycles and was dismissed. Sent home, again he improved at first and then again stole bicycles. He was then placed in a Borstal Institution, where some bad behaviour has been noticed.

A. A. Born 1910. Suffered with encephalitis lethargica 1920. Previous to this he had been a prize winner at school. After his illness he proved

entirely intractable. Physically he had a slight right-sided paralysis, and being laughed at by relatives and school companions became moody and irritable and developed marked right hemiplegia. Ordinarily the right side appeared completely spastic with a marked intention tremor on the rare occasions he could be induced to make any use of it. At times, when he thought he was unobserved the condition was less marked. There was no intellectual impairment. His conduct showed a steady increase of difficulty in management and in violence and there was an obvious conflict with the family at home. Sent away to fresh surroundings he improved steadily and his physical impairment was reduced to a residual organic lesion.

An example in which impairment chiefly affected educational aptitudes is that of a girl attacked by encephalitis at the age of 11 in 1920. She had lethargy diplopia and some facial paralysis. When seen in June, 1921, her score on tests was about a year behind; she could do reading and calculation, though not so well as previously; she found composition and poetry very difficult, but could keep up to the standard in history and geography. The teacher reported that whereas she had been a very bright child, she was now very dull. There was no restlessness or difficulty in sleeping at night. In November, 1921, she was found to have made normal intellectual progress, but was further behind scholastically; she had occasional periods of lethargy in the daytime, with attacks of irritability and lack of interest. In February, 1923, she was reported as not nearly so irritable and to be making moderate progress in school, particularly in manual occupations. Later in the year it was said that her conduct had much improved; her progress was fair, so that she did the ordinary work of her age; she was brighter and exhibited more interest, but her concentration was erratic. Since then she has gradually improved but there is a slight residual irritability and slowness of thought, at least as expressed in action.

Encephalitis has not prevented some children from making satisfactory intellectual progress though there is reason to doubt if they have done as well as they would have had they not been afflicted. In one or two instances children have gained scholarships and proved themselves capable of more advanced work, though there is no doubt that they fatigue more easily than their fellows, and it is questionable whether they would not benefit more by prolonged periods of rest rather than further education.

Mental hebetude may go on long after the illness. Instance a case in which some three years after the illness the subject in one month

Med. Psych. VII

15

took an M.A. Degree, lowered his golf handicap by two and won a local tennis tournament, yet clearly showed the mask-like face of Parkinsonism and a rate of response slowed down to such an extent that it may be doubted if he will long be able to continue his occupation.

While in childhood the check in mental growth and weakening of inhibitions are the most marked features, in adolescent adults the mental changes are clearly in the nature of a disorder. There is apathy, undue irritability, lack of concentration and sustained effort and a violent impulse to respond to the suggestions of the moment. From the medicolegal standpoint the encephalitis case resembles that of the ament. At the same time in the great majority of cases they are perfectly aware of the nature and quality of their acts, and though their behaviour is often at variance with their reasoning it is not that they do not realise the consequences of what they do but that they do not wait to reflect.

On the emotional side apathy seems to have been commoner than positive emotional changes. Sometimes one sees in adults the whole change of disposition. A good tempered person becomes sour, morose and sulky, and readily uses bad language formerly unknown to him, he also loses his self-respect and the wisdom which leads him to appreciate the effect of his actions. In many respects the condition is not unlike that which may follow some forms of alcoholism or cerebral syphilis.

The changes in adults are on the whole less graduated than in the case of children of whom some literally seem to be possessed of the devil and take a delight in doing damage.

The conditions arising in man are paralleled in the lower animals: the nervous type of distemper in dogs may result in fits, paralysis, athetosis, myochoreic and choreiform movements, squints and in conduct changes either in the nature of excitement or apathy. Chorea gives a similar picture but less severe.

A similar temporary increase of irritability, diminution in the power of sustained attention and lowering of the mental age or check in educational and intellectual progress has been noted in the closely allied rheumatic form of encephalitis known as chorea, which also may for a long time present physical residuals in the form of tics and jerky movements. Fortunately in this the recovery rate is high and with rest from pressure the retardation is not of long duration, though it may extend to the end of the school life. In encephalitis lethargica if sequelae have persisted for as long as two years the prognosis for ultimate recovery is very poor.

THE METHODS OF GRAPHOLOGY1

BY ROBERT SAUDEK.

§ 1. Historical Introduction (pp. 221-223).

§ 2. Scope of this paper (pp. 223–224).

§3. The evidence for 'brain-writing' (pp. 224-233).

§ 4. Identification: (a) forgery (pp. 234–237).

(b) disguise (pp. 237-239).

§ 5. Complex-spotting' (pp. 239-240).

§ 6. Characterology (pp. 240–247).

§7. (a) Graphology applied to physical pathology (p. 248).

(b) Graphology applied to psycho-pathology (pp. 249-258). 8. Limitations of graphology at its present stage (p. 258-259).

§ 1. HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION.

ABOUT a century ago a new hobby came into vogue, a new pastime favoured by intellectuals throughout Europe; this was character-reading from handwriting. Some of those who cultivated it may be called amateurs of genius. Lavater, E. A. Poe, Robert Browning, Madame de Staël, Disraeli, Sainte-Beuve were some of them, though Sir Walter Scott more gifted for this amateurish graphology than any contemporary of his. At that time the word 'graphology' did not exist.

was

The term was invented about fifty years after this time by a Frenchman, Jean Hippolyte Michon. But even then graphology was still a pseudo-science, which grew into a real science only very slowly, and not before it had been discredited by its adapters to such an extent that at the beginning of this century scientifically trained people were afraid even to touch the subject2.

The prejudice against graphology was so great that the medical journals in Germany accused Professor William Preyer-a German scientist of English extraction-of childish dilettantism because he dared to write a book on the psychology of handwriting. He and others had 1 Based on a paper entitled "The Psychology of Handwriting" read at a meeting of the Medical Section of the British Psychological Society on October 21st, 1926.

The history of graphology up to the beginning of scientific research work is given by Emile de Vars' Histoire de la Graphologie.