tiny, even in spite of an adverse fatality.

We will now take a rapid view of the external history of this religion, so far as it may be considered certain, which will prepare the way for some observations on the ecclesiastical organization pertaining to it. It is sufficiently ascertained, that the individual whom the Buddhists reverence as their Great Teacher, commonly called Buddha, but sometimes the Sakya-saint, from his family name, and Sakya alone, died B. C. 543. The disciples whom he gained over during his lifetime, formed distinct religious communities; but as these were common among the Brahmans, they may have awakened no suspicion of defection from the religion of the Vedas; indeed, it is probable that Buddhism announced itself, at first, rather as a reform of conduct, than as a philosophical speculation, while in those communities its philosophy was maturing. But the religion of Buddha was at an early period patronized by the kings of Magadha, a powerful empire of large extent, which had its seat in Central India. There was a special rea

son for the favor so soon shown to the Buddhists by the sovereigns of India, for all classes were admissible to their societies, which made a strong, though silent diversion against the all-engrossing influence of the ancient priestly caste, whose supremacy had subjected even royalty to itself. Three councils were held under royal sanction and protection,-one in the year of Buddha's death, another after the lapse of a century, and a third about two centuries later, the first for the promotion of Buddhism, by a definite determination of its doctrines, practical and speculative, and the others, as occasion required, for the reassertion of the pure doctrine, in opposition to the opinions of schismatics. The middle of the third century before our era was

a period of great discouragement, on account of certain wily antagonists, who sought to sap the foundations of the new religion, by pretending themselves to be Buddhists, and, under that cover, teaching doctrines inconsistent with it. But when it recovered from the effects of this insidious hostility, as it did through the favor of the reigning sovereign of Magadha, a new vigor was infused into it. Opposition at home, and a newly awakened religious zeal, directed the attention of the Buddhists to seeking asylums for their faith, and other fields of propagandism, out of Central India. At the same time, Buddhism itself assumed another phase, for we consider it probable that the distinction between lay and clerical Buddhists now became marked. The widest extension of the religion, as well as the state of civilization in some of the countries into which it was carried, was incompatible with gather. ing all disciples into separate communities; it was indispensable that there should be a lower and easier grade of discipleship established, in order to win the multitude.

The religion now became disseminated in the recesses of the Himalaya, and perhaps beyond that mountain-range, northward; in the Indus country, and within the borders of the empire of the successors of Alexander; possibly even in the kingdom of the Ptolemies; and in the country of the Mahrattas, and Ceylon. There are still to be seen monumental vestiges of Buddhism, which probably belong to this great age of its missions. We refer to the columns of Delhi and Allahabad, inscribed with royal edicts in favor of this religion; to some of the topes or tumuli of the country of the Indus, and westward of that river, which were places of deposit for pretended relics of Buddha ; and especially to certain of the rock excavations of the western coast of the Deccan, which, by means of

the deciphering of inscriptions and architectural examination, have been proved to be of the third century before Christ,-the abodes of Buddhist monks of that period.

Subsequent to this missionary era, we are compelled to pass over several centuries, during which we are ignorant what was the fate of Buddhism in India. We may conjecture that it experienced alter nate prosperity and decline, according to the fluctuation of the relative strength of the Brahmans and the ruling sovereigns. In the latter half of the fifth century of our era, Brahmanism prevailed; the Buddhist Primate retired to China, and, though an exterminating hostility was not declared until sometime in the seventh century, it is probable that from the close of the fifth century the disciples of Buddha had no longer a quiet existence in India. In the country watered by the Indus and its tributaries, Buddhism declined as early as between the commencement of the sixth century and the middle of the seventh. China had received this foreign religion before the Christian era, through Upper Asia, perhaps by missionaries from Khotan, more commonly known as Lesser Bochara, which appears to have become even so early a center of Buddhist propagandism, and may have been reached across Cashmere. Many of the local names in Khotan, it has been observed, betray a Sanskrit origin. In the first centuries after Christ, there was frequent communication between the Chinese and Hindus, for the cause of Buddhism; but it was not extensively propagated in China, until the commencement of the century previous to that in which occurred the exile from India of the Buddhist Primate.

About the time when this event took place, we find the Buddhists spreading themselves into countries where their religion had not before been taught, and this still wider

dissemination may be regarded as the result of their troubles in India, correspondently to what we have already noticed at an ear. lier period. In the fifth and sixth centuries, Buddhism was carried "from several countries beyond sea," among which a region west of the Indus is particularly specified, to Japan. Early in the seventh century it was introduced into Tibet, apparently from India. That form of it, however, which still exists in Tibet, where its principal seat is at present, originated under Gengis Khan and his successors in the thirteenth century. It may be presumed, also, that many of the hordes of Upper Asia received it about this time, in consequence of the Mongol conquest. Turning in another direction, we find that it was planted in Pegu, between the fourth and fifth centuries, by missionaries from Ceylon, which was then, and probably had been, since soon after the first establishment of the Buddhists there, a central point, from which their influence extended. The countries on the eastern side of Farther India seem to have been first visited by these enterprising propagandists from Java, where their religion became nationalized early in the Christian era. know that, in the fifth century, the religion of Buddha had entirely lost its hold in Java, and there is reason to believe that its disciples, being obliged to give way to other religious influences on that island, spread themselves from thence to other islands of the Indian Archipelago, and to the continent.

We

We have thus marked some of the most important periods in the history of Buddhism, showing its wide diffusion in ancient times, and the circumstances under which it was introduced where it still flourishes. The followers of Buddha, it has been seen, have ever been eminently propagandists, and there is little doubt, that their missionary operations are

still carried on in Upper Asia. It will not therefore be out of place to consider, in some particulars, the development of that instrumentality by which the field of their influence has been made so large.

The missionaries of Buddha are a fraternity of clerical monks. We have said, that originally all those who embraced this religion devoted themselves to a religious life; having renounced secular cares and pleasures, they were associated to gether for the purpose of discipline and instruction; the distinctions of caste were disregarded; they were a brotherhood. Some subordination was, to be sure, essential to the attainment of their object, but higher or lower rank seems to have been determined by the degree of perfection, according to the rules and requirements of the order, which different individuals might reach; and when these associations became numerous, there was a fraternal interchange of counsel and instruction between them, through their respective Heads. But with the recognition of the distinction of lay and clerical Buddhists, the position and character of the religious fraternities became changed. They then began to appear as made up of a separate class of persons, dedicated to severer habits of life than their fellow disciples, and discharging duties, in some manner vicarious, in behalf of these. They became exclusive interpreters of the Buddhistic rule of faith and practice, which it was the part of the laity reverently and without questioning, to receive from their lips; to the members of the clerical order confession of sin was humbly made by the laity, who sought to be instructed how they might obtain absolution; religious ceremonies also were performed by the clergy, to procure benefits for the unconsecrated, and to avert from them evils. In this way the key of knowledge and the reins of conscience came into their hands. At

the same time, by a natural consequence, the lines of distinction between the different members of the religious fraternities themselves were made more definite and fixed. The gradations of rank now became more official; the station of Head of the order was less distinguished as a degree of perfection to which an individual might rise, merely by the force of his personal attainments, than as an office to be perpetuated by successive appointment; the foundations of a prelacy were laid, of which the investiture seems to have belonged to the sovereign. We suppose that the re-establishment of Buddhism, in the third century before our era, led to these modifications of the system; while the missionary enterprise of that age gave them a stability and unfolded them farther; for the Buddhist missionaries did not go forth, on their own individual authority, but were commissioned, under royal sanction, out of the clerical body; they went abroad to execute a work of which they were to render an account, and this especial responsibility on their part would of course increase the sway and power of the Primate. But the principle of ecclesiastical subordination was destined to have a yet more decided manifestation, among the Buddhists of Tibet, several centuries later. We allude to Lamaism. It was natural that the missionaries of Buddha, having introduced themselves, should soon gain a commanding position among an uncultivated people such as the Tibetans were, previous to the seventh century. They were the depositaries of all superior knowledge, and as has been observed, the tribes of Upper Asia, notwithstanding the simplicity and rudeness of their nomadic life, seem to be peculiarly susceptible to influences connected with the mysteries of religion. History indicates, that these missionaries brought new ideas of social order into Tibet, the prevalence of which must have heightened their

authority and the estimation in which they were held by the nation: it appears, also, that the Tibetans were first taught the art of writing by these disciples of Buddha,-an art exceedingly adapted to awaken the slumbering powers of uncultivated intellect, and to open the mind to new impressions. All this tended especially to aggrandize the Lamas, or spiritual Guides of the Tibetans; and to it was added, in the thirteenth century, the policy of the Mongol emperors, who, to confirm their dominion in Tibet, invested the ecclesiastical Head of the Buddhists with a temporal power, which, even after it had passed away, threw its shadow over him, rendering him an object of superstitious veneration, mingled with awe, as towards a sovereign. The Tibetan Primate was also constituted "king of the doctrine in the three lands," or primate at large throughout the Mongol empire. Such was the origin of the worship of the Grand Lama.

We will conclude this sketch of some of the features of Buddhism and its fortunes, with an estimate of the character of its influence upon the world. If then we consider its doctrinal principles, we find that ifs view of the Deity is as little conformable to truth as the theology of the Brahmans, from which it is an offset. The original doctrinal tendency of Buddhism, as opposed to pantheism, was good; but we see here how little able is unassisted reason under the influences actually operating upon it, to hold even that truth relative to the Divine Being, which it would seem to recognize. The Brahmans make every thing to be Deity. The Buddhists, rejecting this doctrine, are driven to the opposite extreme of conceiving the Deity to be a mere abstraction of Being. Both

are

equally remote, in contrary directions, from the recognition of a Supreme Being exalted above all comparison with humanity, yet having

respect to His creatures, and administering a government over moral beings, of which the very foundation is the fact of their dependence. The Buddhistic doctrine of God, developed as we have supposed under the impulse of a quickened conscience, failed no less than the Brahmanic theology, to lay a foundation for the distinctions of a moral law. But while Buddhism removes the Deity from all authoritative relations to mankind, it disa vows human passivity, which Brahmanism teaches. It sets forth the Divine perfection as an object which may be attained by the active effort of man in spite of an opposing fatality it stimulates the power of will. It makes virtue to be the voluntary imposition of self-restraint, and the exercise of those faculties which man possesses as his inherent prerogative; in other words, self-improvement, the cultivation of the natural capabilities and of the na tive moral sense, irrespective of å Divine rule. Virtue with the Buddhists is necessarily its own reward," since no retribution can be anticipated. Self-culture, however, even though imperfectly understood, is the highest gratification of which the mind, conscious of higher powers, is capable; and its final issue being conceived to be a participation of Divinity, it could not but call forth energy and boldness of spirit in the pursuit. 1

Here we may discover the secret of that civilizing influence which Buddhism has unquestionably exerted. It is highly interesting to consider the effect of this religion, attested by history and the observations of modern travelers, upon the wild tribes of Upper Asia. There appears to have been no civilization in Tibet before its introduction there; and the Mongols were humanized by the religious principles of their Tibetan subjects. It can scarcely be doubted, that the promulgation of this religion was con