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THE

UNIVERSAL MAGAZINE.

N° LXXXIII.-VOL. XIV.]

For OCTOBER, 1810.

[NEW SERIES. "We shall never envy the honours which wit and learning obtain in any other cause, if we can be numbered among the writers who have given ardour to virtue, and confidence to truth."-DR. JOHNSON.

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

Dr. Toulmin to the Editor.

SIR,

been present at that conversation, or that Socrates had, on some similar occasion, discoursed on the same sub

AS you have judged the Dialogue ject, without any material difference

other on

of Eschines, on the Fear of of expression. We have a like inDeath," not an unsuitable piece for a stance in the Gorgias of Plato. place in your instructive miscellany, it is concluded that his other two Dialogues, one on "Virtue," and the "Riches," may meet with the same indulgence: and it is hoped also, that they will give some value and importance to the former communications, as affording further cimens of the Socratic mode of philosophizing, and setting before your readers a complete work of one author from the Socratic School.

I am, Sir, your's,

spe

JOSHUA TOULMIN.

Birmingham 27th Sept. 1810.

ESCHINES' DIALOGUES.

The First Dialogue: concerning Virtue, or whether it can be taught

The question discussed in this dialogue is, "Whether virtue can be taught?" Socrates, by his usual mehe discoursed, to acknowledge that thod, brings the person, with whom men could not be taught virtue: he carries his point by an appeal to those named as patterns of virtue; namely, very examples which this person had Thucydides, not the historian, but a popular leader, Themistocles, Aristides, and Pericles. Socrates leads him to concede, 1st, That these great. men had not been under any masters whom they resembled, and by whom they had been formed to virtue.-2d, That they had left no disciples who equalled them, not even their own sons, though they had taken all the pains in the world to educate them well. The friend, or disciple, of SoLe Clerc's preliminary Essay. crates asks, thereupon, if these great THIS Dialogue seems to be one of men were of themselves virtuous by those which Diogenes Laertius de- nature? The philosopher shows that scribes as without an introduction, it was not so; because, if this had because Socrates enters on the subject been the case, those happy dispositions, abruptly and at once, without men- which constitute virtue, would have tioning the occasion which led him been observed in them from the time into this conversation. The same of their birth; and they would have point is discussed in the Menon of been fixed upon as the objects of the Plato, and in almost the same words; most watchful care, for fear that any from whence some may conclude that injury should happen to them before this dialogue was taken from that: they attained to the age for serving their but I am satisfied of the contrary, country: but this was not done.because, if any one had been inclined From whence, then, says the friend to borrow from Plato the sentiments of Socrates, arose their virtue, if it of this dialogue, he would, for fear were not either by nature, or eduof being charged with plagiarism, cation? Socrates replies, that it seems have changed the expressions. It has to have been the gift of Heaven, bethe appearance, as if schines had stowed on some men by the diviue UNIVERSAL MAG, VOL. XIV. 2 L

liberality, when it is the design of men, who have not, naturally, any Providence that the state, in which principles, biasses, or faculties to desuch characters are born, should be termine them to prefer virtue to vice; prosperous. This is the subject of and that it is by reasoning only that the conference, which, as it was cus- they are led to do it: or, 2d, that tomary with him, Socrates manages there are some powers in all men, so well, that the person with whom which, when they begin to be exhe conversed was obliged to fall into ercised, cause them to prefer moral the same sentiment with the phi- good to moral evil, and truth to losopher, without foreseeing to what falsehood. point he was bringing him.

According to these different senses the proposed question admits different answers.

The readers of this dialogue will easily perceive that there is an ambiguity in the terms in which the ques- It is certain that men cannot give tion, on which the debate turns, was to men abilities of usefulness to soproposed; and that the philosopher ciety, who have no natural disposition, appears to speak against his own sen- nor any talents to acquire them.— timents, since he spent his life in in- There are talents which the best masstructing youth in virtue, which would ters suppose to exist in their pupils, have been useless, if they who are without which they can do them no virtuous become so without a master. good. In this sense, "virtue cannot We have attempted, in the notes, be taught," so that they who hear its briefly to remove this difficulty: but, as they did not afford sufficient room to observe all that the point suggests, we have more fully treated it in a distinct chapter; of which I will here give a concise abstract.

The Greek word agn, which is translated virtue, is very equivocal. It signifies, 1st, every talent which qualifies a man for what he undertakes; as we show in a note at the beginning of the dialogue; since Socrates calls the ability of a physician, or even of a cook, who acquits himself properly in his employment, virtue. 2d, A bias of nature, by which a man appears more fit for one province than another, and which begins to appear as soon as reason opens, especially if he should one day distinguish himself in this employ. 3d, A habit of acting according to this predominent bias, which is acquired by practice. 4th, Moral virtue, which characterises the actions, that form our manners, whether we speak of the personal conduct of individuals,.or of the administration of public affairs.

The word to be taught is also equivocal: for it signifies, 1st, to deliver precepts on a subject, whether they who hear them practice them or not. 2d, The effect produced by precepts, when they are carried into practice. Besides this, in the question" whether virtue can be taught," the word admits two senses. For we may suppose, 1st, that virtue may be taught

precepts, should attain to the practice of it. If men are not born with faculties proper to be serviceable to society, they can never be made so by instruction. We may say further, that if, besides faculties, they have not an inclination and bias to certain pursuits, antecedently to any instruction, they will never reach to excellence. We have seen such a bias discover itself in great men, before they received any instruction; as royal virtues were observed in Cyrus, and a taste for geometry in Pascal, from their very childhood.

It is also certain that the faculties and biasses of nature, or rather which God has communicated, require instruction in order to be brought into a beneficial use, and to attain to excellence. In this sense, virtue may be taught, and is taught every day. Socrates himself was engaged in no other employment than in endeavours to form to virtue young persons in whom he saw a disposition proper for his purpose, and favourable to his success. So that, in this view, he was fully persuaded that he could teach virtue. He could have no doubt that the four great men, mentioned in this conversation, had been under masters: for, in short, they had been educated as other Athenians, and the examples of their predecessors were so many lessons to them. Tho' they had not been under such able masters as they were, an indifferent

education, with the dispositions they lents which he has received from possessed, would have been sufficient Heaven, contributes, in his own pro

to have enabled them to attain to more than a common proficiency in virtue. They would have been able to train up disciples who would resemble themselves, if they met with subjects of as good dispositions as their own: and their examples did form some, as we learn from the history of the Athenian republic, which never wanted, in after times, great men. If inents and authorities. They are all their sons did not resemble them, it so formed that they can easily diswas because they had not received tinguish truth from falsehood, and the like talents from nature, or be- the honest from the dishonest conCause they were unwilling to take the duct, and they approve the former trouble to cultivate them and to raise and condemn the latter. If they folthem to perfection by exercise. A low the light of nature, and unite skihul painter, for instance, transmits with it the choice of an employment, his power of execution to those only for which they are suited, without of his students who have a natural talent for painting and who cultivate it. They who fail in the one or the other never distinguish themselves in the

vince, to the benefit of society.

But, besides the talents peculiar to` every sphere, there are duties common to all the members of a society, for which every one is fitted; as the duties of humanity, justice, and temperance. All men have received from Heaven what is necessary for this purpose; as may be shown by argu

art.

This is, conspicuously, agreeable to the experience of all ages. Socrates had too much good sense to contradict it: and it is clear, from many passages in Xenophon, that he believed, according to the sense in which we have asserted it, that " virtue can he taught." Some philosophers, who, at first, seem to deny it, have also, as they made it evident, been of the same opinion.

It appears to me, that men are not all born equal, or equally fit to succeed in the same pursuits: whether the difference lieth in the body or the mind; for I see no reason satisfactory to prove that there may not be a variety in minds as well as in bodies. There is much appearance that the Creator has intended this variety, that men may more easily be formed into societies, in which each might act his proper part. One man cannot do every thing; he stands in need of the aid of others who may render him a thousand services which he cannot perform for himself; as they may reciprocally receive assistance from him, according to his ability. If all were suited to command, and few fitted to submit, no one would obey, and no society could exist. On the contrary, if no one knew how to command, all would be confusion. that every one, according to the ta

aspiring to any above their capacity, they can very much contribute to their own happiness and that of society.*

[To be continued.]

Qui te videt beatus est Beatior qui te audict Zui bacial-semi deus e t. BUCHANNAN. T was the custom of Mohamasim to rise with the sun, and drive his asses through the streets of Bagdad. All the world is aware that the milk of those animals is a sovereign remedy against stupidity: Mohamasim, therefore, grew tolerably rich, for there was not a citizen who did not persuade his neighbour that he stood in woeful need of the remedy. Twenty years did he pass in this uninterrupted course without a murmur and without a wish. He had heard all speak with enthusiasm of the pleasures of variety, yet heard with indifference: to him that was most grateful which was most easy; and though not supernaturally wise, he had discernment sufficient to discover that, most things become easy by perpetual recurrence.

'Tis a piteous truth, that, be our inclinations howsoever unaspiring and inoffensive, they are qually subject to opposition with the most turbulent

So **

Bibliotheque Choisie, V. 22. p.

186–115.

hamasim, rubbing his shoulders, thy will is indisputable; mankind are thy slaves; thou speakest and art obeyed, nay more than obeyed. Dust of my feet, replied the Sultan, tamper not with my patience; choose, or this moment is thy last. Let me consider, said Mohamasim, with a playfulness he could not conquer; shall I now have 960 more of these pretty, agreeable, jocose lashes, or a kiss of the princess; why, truly, I believe I shall prefer the kiss, if it be merely for the sake of variety. The Sultan smiled and left him.

and ambitious: we may as well expect to live for ever, as to be for ever fortunate. Life is at best but like the beard of Hamlet's father, a sable silvered: even the humble existence of Mohamasim, it seems, was to be chequered with trouble; for, one day, as the Sultan passed by, the poor fellow, seized with a fit of coughing, wiped his mouth with his sleeve. Unfortunately, by the laws of the Ottomans, it is a capital crime to wipe your mouth in the supreme presence; but the Sultan, who then reigned, having an uncommon portion of humanity and forgiveness, ordered Well, said the ass-driver, when the punishment to be mitigated to a alone, can this be rejection: can this thousand lashes. Now, as Mohama- be choice: or receive 960 lashes from sim could have no claim to feeling, the heavy hand of that unmerciful for he was an ass-driver, a thousand scoundrel, or kiss the Princess Roxalashes was a mere flea-bite to him: linda, the most angelic of mortals, even the courtiers, a kind of person- the darling of the universe? Am I age renowned for compassion and awake? It would have puzzled fine feeling, did not deny the justice Merlin himself to determine how and lenity of the sentence; for what crime could be more atrocious than to wife one's mouth in the presence of a being who wore red morocco slippers?

Punishments are bestowed in Turkey with somewhat more alacrity than rewards are given in England. Mohamasim was stripped with summary celerity, and had received a dozen tolerably smart applications to his shoulders, when the Sultan ordered the executioner to stop. The executioner, having lent his sovereign money, cared not an iota for his commands, so proceeded. The truth was, that having run up a score with Mohamasim for milk, he bore him inveterate animosity; for there is nothing so merciless as ingratitude. Stay your hand, said the Vizier; but still he proceeded. Stay your hand,exclaimed the courtiers unanimously, but still he proceeded. Dog, said the Sultan enraged, stay thy hand, or thou shalt be hanged, like the coffin of Mahomet, between earth and heaven. As the man had no violent inclination to be hung he withheld at last,and Mobamasim had the satisfaction of hearing him told to go about his business. Mohamasim, said the Sultan, if thou hast not contrived, before one revolution of the moon, to kiss the Princess Roxalinda, thou shalt receive the rest. Commander of the Faithful, said Mo

long he would have soliloquized in interrogations, had he not been interrupted by the melodious remon strances of his animals; but no sooner did the well-known sounds salute his ears, than he started as from a trance, and, running to embrace his com panions, profaned the very lips with which he was to kiss the princess; never did scene exhibit more pathos on the one side, or more indifference on the other: the truth is, that asses are not remarkable for tenderness.

As he quitted the animals, the dif ficulty of obtaining an interview with the princess for the first time occurred. to him. Mirthful and thoughtless, he never dreamed of obstacles till he tumbled over them: it was not till now that he suspected the Sultan, in giving him his choice, had condescended to be facetious, and that, in fact, his shoulders were doomed to be flayed as inevitably as though Gravity herself held the lash. In the name of the prophet, said he, where, when, and how shall I behold the Princess Roxalinda? What hast thou to do with her, said a neighbour, slapping him with friendly freedom on the shoulder?

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