addressed,' In eos qui vetustam Astrologiae scientiam derident.' Commendatory verses are prefixed by Henry Gale, Master of Arts,' and by 'George Meares, Gentleman,' commending both Greene and astrology. Meares speaks this our time,

of

Wherein Astrologie her famous lore,
Doth iustly claim her sacred due.

There is also prefixed a quotation from Plato to the effect that a man is a fool and a beast if he does not study astrology. Greene then passes to 'A briefe Apologie of the sacred Science of Astronomie. That there were base material creatures who did not believe comes out also (pp. 24-5):

But although our auncestors were thus studious of Astronomie, and delighted greatly in the science: yet in these our daies we affirme that it is impossible to find any end of this arte, because it is neither certaine nor true, and that neither Mars nor Iupiter are mooued in the Heauens for our cause, neither haue the Planets any care of humane actions: but are necessarily caried about in their Globes & spheares. Vnto which foolish obiection, not I, but Ptolomie doth answere.

Alas, what a thing is faith, and how badly off are they that lack it! To think that there should be one who did not believe the planets had any care of human actions! Alas, what a fall for man's importance!

Greene then proceeds to a lengthy statement of the seven planets and their influences. In such an atmosphere what wonder if conjuring quacks were numberless and Simon Formans were making fortunes?

In the matter of transmutation of metals, faith was less widespread. Bacon-who has essayed scientifically to explain astrology-remarks: 'I was ever of opinion that the philosophers' stone and an holy war were but the rendezvous of cracked brains that wore their feathers in their heads.' But there had always been skeptics on this point. Chaucer had satirized it in 1390. Lyly called it an empty fraud in 1590. But it would not down for all that. Many years afterward Sir Isaac Newton made alchemical

}

experiments, and we know that Leibnitz was secretary of an alchemical society1.

But what perhaps contributed more than anything else to the activity in alchemy in the reign of Queen Elizabeth was the fact that the queen herself was a believer in alchemy and a patron of its professors. The Calendar of State Papers furnishes us with plenty of evidence on this point. I cite some characteristic entries illustrating the queen's leaning towards alchemy.

1566, July ?. [Cornelius Lannoy] to the Queen. I know how grievous this delay must be to you. I have nothing to offer you in this your kingdom but my life, which would be a heavy loss to my innocent wise. As to the business of transmuting metals and gems to greater perfection, either the work has been disturbed, or some wicked man has been present, or I have erred through syncopation. Pray permit me to write to my friends for help, for I can indubitably perform what I have promised.

To this is annexed:

Directions [by Cornelius Lannoy] for employing a certain medicine for converting base metals into gold.-Dom. Ser. Eliz. Add. 1566-79, p. 10.

1565, Feb. 7. Memorial of Comelius de Alneto, alias Lannoy, to the Queen. offering to produce for Her Highness' use 50,000 marks of pure gold yearly, on certain conditions.-Dom. Eliz. 1547-80, p. 249.

1566, Aug. 3. Declaration by Cornelius de Lannoy that if it shall please the Queen to release him from confinement, he will without delay put in operation that wonderful elixir for making gold for her majesty's service.— Ibid., p. 276.

1566, Aug. 13. Tower of London. Cornelius de Lannoy to Leicester and Cecill. Implores the Queen's mercy. Shews the impediments which he has encountered in making gold.—Ibid., p. 277.

1566, Aug. 26. Sir F. Jobson and Armigill Waad to Cecill. Have conferred with Cornelius on the subject of his letter. Requisitions made by Cornelius for carrying on his alchemical operations, for which a small sum of money will be required.—Ibid., p. 277.

1567, Mch. 13. Cornelius Alnetanus [Lannoy] to Sir Wm. Cecill. Promises to perform the things mentioned in his offers to the Queen. Incloses 'Cornelius Alnetanus to the Queen.' Solemnly engages to produce gold and gems by a chemical process. [In Cecill's diary, 2/10, 1567: 'Cornelius de la Noye, an alchymist, wrought in Somerset House, and abused many in promising to convert any metal into gold.']—Ibid., p. 289. Another of the queen's alchemical ventures, in which are concerned the names of John Peterson, Roloff Peterson, and

1 Dr. Johnson thought alchemy not impossible. Cf. Hill's Boswell, II, 376-7. 2 More of Lannoy can be found Ibid., pp. 269, 273, 275, 276, 385.

Robert Smythe, is referred to in Cal. State Papers, Dom. Eliz. 1547-80, p. 403; 1591-4, pp. 376, 422, 435, 588. I quote:

1594, Feb. 20. Instructions to Rob. Smith of Yarmouth, sent by the Queen to Lubec. He having received the Queen's reply to a letter from Roloff Peterson of Lubec, is to repair thither, deliver the letter, receive the three glass bodies, and bring them to her majesty. He is to ascertain from Peterson whether the materials therein were considered by Ouldfield to be brought to full perfection, and if anything is lacking, what it is. Also to recover any books or papers of Oldfield relating thereto, or other of his books which treat of alchemy; also a secret menstruum, without which the materials aforesaid can hardly be brought to perfection. All these things are to be brought to Her Majesty, in order to ascertain their value, and either detain them, or return them, on the consideration mentioned.Ibid., p. 435.

[She was to give £500 if she kept them.]

Elizabeth's relations to alchemy are further touched on: Cal. State Papers, Addenda, Dom. Eliz. 1566-79, p. 47. The queen and her court evidently had faith. As is the usual luck in this craft, something happened to prevent the desired consummation.

I add another citation from the Calendar of State Papers, which does not refer to the queen personally, but is of general interest. It may be added to by reference to the indexes of the separate volumes. I quote from the abstract there given :

1601, Dec.?. Dan Doryn, Dutchman, to [Sec. Cecil?]. Going over to Emden last April on family business, I became intimate with Peter Lubrighte, a German, who showed me a powder which would turn silver and quicksilver into gold, and he did it before my face. I got some of the powder, came to England, stayed till Midsummer, thence backwards and forwards to Calais about family affairs. I showed Hans Ghammell of Dunkirk my powder, and he told the governor of Gravelines; they did it themselves, and asked if I could make the powder. I said not, but a friend of mine could; they offered me money to get my friend thither, which I promised to try to do, but have never been there since.—Dom. Eliz. 1601-3, p. 137. No statement of disbelief in the possibility of the operations seems to occur, from any of the numerous officials connected with these entries.

In 1618 Sir Giles Mompesson (Massinger's Sir Giles Overreach in A New Way to pay old Debts) applied for a patent to make gold and silver lace with copper in a new

'alchymistical' way. Lord Bacon, as Chancellor of England, approved the granting of the patent1. This was eight years after the production of Jonson's Alchemist.

We have seen why the abuses of alchemy maintained themselves so long, and played so large a part in life. The chief of these reasons has been seen to be the credulity of the people. This we have illustrated with especial reference to the half-century preceding Jonson's Alchemist, thereby partially anticipating our next section on the conditions in England which confronted Jonson in 1610. Before passing to this section let us stop a moment to consider some of the tricks of the alchemists.

The tricks by which alchemical swindles were carried on are simple and of great age. Notwithstanding, they have been brought into play in London and New York within the last fifteen years, of which more anon. Chaucer states them as definitely as any later writer. Chaucer's canon and his London priest are eternal types of the confidence-man and the dupe. First, the apparent transformation to draw on the prey. The vessel being put upon the fire with quicksilver in it, the alchemist directs his dupe to pile coals carefully in a heap over it, the wonderful powder being first put in. Then, on pretense of helping to arrange the coals, the alchemical canon lays on the top a hollow beechen coal containing silver filings plugged in with wax. The fire melts the wax, and the silver filings drop into the crucible. In due time the crucible is put in a dish of water, cooled, and the silver drawn out by the dupe's own hand, to the great satisfaction of both parties. Then the canon, 'rote of alle cursednesse,' offers a second proof of his skill. The same process is gone through again, except that this time the canon put silver filings in a hollow cane stopped with wax, and pokes about the 'crosselet' (crucible) with this until the wax melts and the silver falls into the pot. Then to rivet the chains of the poor duped priest, the canon asks for a block of copper. This they melt and • Satur 1 Saturday Review, 8-15-1874, PP. 206–7.

treat with powder as before. When it is cooled in a vessel of water, the canon, putting in his hand, slips a block of silver equal to the copper into the water and slyly draws away the copper 1. The poor priest presently putting in his hand brings up the silver block. Away they go to the goldsmith and find that they have good silver. The priest, hot to possess the secret of the wonderful powder, pays £40 for it. The canon vanishes. It is not necessary to add that his friend the priest is permanently deprived of the joy of his presence.

Jonson refers to these same tricks of cozening with a hollow coal, dust, scrapings. He also offers a variation :

And this Doctor,

Your footy, fmoakie-bearded compeere, he
Will clofe you fo much gold, in a bolts-head,

And, on a turne, conuay (i'the stead) another

With fublim'd Mercurie, that fhall burft i'the heate,

And flye out all in fumo? Then weepes MAMMON:
Then fwounes his worship 2.

It is in the ending. Subtle here is making the stone for Mammon. Mammon furnishes the money. Needless to say, his gold does not go into the melting-pot but into the purses of the swindlers. When it is time for the farce to end, the old trick of having the furnace burst, go up in fumo, is resorted to. The craftiness with which Mammon is made to believe in this is a happy stroke of Jonson's own. From the start Subtle has insisted on personal purity as a necessary qualification for having the stone. As the end comes on, Dol draws Mammon towards an intrigue. At the proper moment Subtle surprizes him, and while rebuking his sin and saying that the work has stood still for the last hour. on that account, suddenly there is a crash and 'all is flowne in fumo. Subtle falls in a faint; Mammon goes away repentant, promising to send £100 to the poor in atone

1 Sometimes a crucible with a false bottom was used; sometimes the alleged powder of projection was a preparation of gold (as in the E. Pinter case). Generally, however, the adepts relied on sleight of hand, as in Chaucer, and conveyed the gold into the place where it was needed before the face of the dupe. • IV. 603 ff.