The

are substantially equal in matters of legislation. members of the Chamber of Deputies are chosen by universal male suffrage by districts just as representatives of Congress are chosen. Their term of service is fixed at four years. As to the composition and organization of the Senate, the constitution makes no provision and but scant reference to its powers. France is divided into administrative departments, each department subdivided into districts containing approximately the same population. The number of districts within an administrative department constitutes an electoral college, and these various electoral colleges choose the members of the Senate. Senators are apportioned among the several departments according to population. The term of office for senators is fixed at nine years. The constitution provides that the terms of one third of the number of senators shall expire every three years. Like members of Congress, they enjoy certain immunities while in the discharge of their duties as legislators. Measures duly passed by both chambers are sent to the president for his approval, but he has neither an absolute nor a qualified veto. He may, however, demand a reconsideration of the measure, and, if passed by a majority of both houses, it becomes a law notwithstanding his objections.

The French Executive. The French chief executive is called a president and is not elected by popular vote but is chosen by majority vote of a body composed of the members of the two chambers of the legislature. The president's term is fixed at seven years, and he is eligible for reëlection. No person who is a member of any family that has reigned in France is eligible. The president's executive powers include the negotiating of treaties, the appointment and reception of ambassadors and ministers, and the power to wage war.

In addition to the legislative power above

referred to, the president may prorogue parliament and initiate legislative measures. He has almost unlimited power of appointment and supervision of administrative officers, and also extensive ordinance powers where the legislature has not made proper provision, and directs the work of the army and navy. He may also grant pardons, commute penalties, and issue reprieves. In exercising the above powers the president acts through his ministers, who are collectively responsible to the legislature for the general policy of the administration and individually responsible for their own personal acts, thus relieving the president of all responsibility, although they are discharging his orders — a relation similar to that existing between the emperor and chancellor in the German government. The ministers are appointed by the president and serve during his pleasure, in theory; in practice, however, they are appointed by the leader of the Chamber of Deputies. Like the members of the British cabinet, the ministers are selected from the members of parliament usually, and in any event are entitled to seats in the chambers, and must be heard whenever they desire to speak. They are the heads of the several administrative departments of the general government, and are the leaders of the majority in the legislature.

The French Judicial System. The French judicial system is purely statutory, the only constitutional provision being that which relates to the Senate as an extraordinary court for specified cases. Of the system of courts, the highest is the Court of Cassation. Next below this are the courts of appeal, which hear cases from the courts of first instance, while these in turn hear appeals from decisions of the justices of the peace. These smaller courts try civil cases and act as police judges for the trial of petty offenses. There are numerous special courts.

The ordinary civil courts are without juries, the judges alone deciding the question of fact as well as of law. The judges are appointed by the president, and their tenure, except that of justices of the peace, is during good behavior. They can be removed only by the Court of Cassation. In the government of local affairs France differs from the English and American governments in that the organs of local government are not general authorities of enumerated powers, no attempt being made at specification. To prevent local administrative units from misusing such wide powers, there has been introduced a method of central administrative control, which is the distinguishing feature of French government. Through these local officials the central government administers matters of general concern.

Canada's Constitution. By act of Parliament the various provinces of British North America were organized into a federal government in 1867. A written constitution was embodied in the act and is still in force. This constitution differs from the constitution of the United States in that all powers not specifically delegated to the provinces are reserved to the central government. The administration of the public debt and property; the raising of taxes for general use; providing for the public defense, including the militia; money, including coinage, paper money, promissory notes, legal tender, and banking; the regulation of commerce, shipping, and navigation; the coast and postal service, the census, statistics, patents, naturalization, copyrights, care of the Indians, marriage and divorce-all are questions dealt with by the central government. Delegated to the provinces are those powers over local taxes, local commerce, the creation of municipal corporations, the borrowing of money on the credit of the province, and various other local questions. The

provincial and federal governments also exercise concurrent powers, some of which relate to immigration and agriculture. Whenever the provincial laws conflict with those of the federal government, the practice has been to follow along the lines of federal legislation.

Canada's Legislature. The law-making power of the Canadian government is vested in the king of Great Britain, or his representative, and the Dominion parliament. The Dominion parliament is composed of two houses. The upper house is called the Senate and the lower the House of Commons. The eighty-seven members of the Senate are appointed for life by the governor-general. They must be subjects of the king, thirty years of age, residents of the province which they represent and in which they own property to the value of at least four thousand dollars. The House of Commons consists of 221 members elected for a term of five years on the basis of population. To establish this basis it is provided that the province of Quebec shall always have sixty-five members and the other provinces a number bearing the same relation to the population as the sixty-five does to the population of Quebec. In this manner the number due each province as its population increases is determined, the number which represent Quebec always remaining at sixty-five, regardless of the population. All bills relating to the raising of money must originate in the House of Commons, and these cannot be amended by the Senate. Its power of rejection entire is rarely used.

Canada's Executive. Canada's executive power is vested in the king of England, or in his representative, the governorgeneral, and a privy council composed of a premier, fourteen heads of departments, and three cabinet ministers. The ministerial departments are those of State, Justice, Finance, Interior, Customs, Posts, Trade and Commerce, Marine and