Amendments to the state constitution, and public improvements involving large expenditure of public funds, have generally been submitted to popular vote. The principle of the referendum has, in various ways, been recognized from the early beginnings of government in this country. The principle is further recognized in referring such questions as local option, municipal ownership, the incorporation of villages and cities, and similar questions to the people to decide at the polls. South Dakota, Oregon, and Oklahoma provide in their state constitutions or by statute for a system of direct legislation by this means. tendency of modern times is in the direction of the initiative and the referendum, and toward direct-primary nominations for all public offices. A majority of the states now have primary-election laws.

The

Library References. Macy, chaps. viii-xi, xiii; Macy, First Lessons, chaps. iii-xv, xxiv, xxviii; Dawes, chaps. xiii-xiv; Fiske, pp. 173-188; Hinsdale, chaps. xliv-liv; Bryce, Vol. I, chaps. xxxvixlv; Wilson, §§ 885-994; Dole, chaps. xv-xvii, xix; Lalor, Article on Constitutional and Legal Diversities in States; Woodburn, chap. vii.

QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT

1. In some states women, aliens, infamous criminals, idiots, minors, and lunatics are excluded from voting. Give reasons for or against the exclusion in each case.

2. Should paupers be allowed to vote? Give reasons.

3. Give a reason for the law requiring registration of voters. 4. Give one reason why a legislature should consist of two bodies.

5. Give arguments for or against biennial sessions of the state legislature.

6. What is the capital of a state and why so called?

7. Describe the process of assessing property for the purpose of taxation, and show how the amount of money to be raised by each town is fixed.

8. Mention three kinds of property that are usually exempt from taxation, giving reasons. Why has the state the right to impose taxes?

9. What is meant in general by a compulsory-education law? Why is such a law desirable?

10. May a state levy and collect an income tax?

11. What government touches the individual most frequently -city, state, or national? Why?

12. Mention the different state courts. What is a police court?

13. Under what circumstances may cases be transferred from state to federal courts?

14. If legislation on any subject is desired by citizens of the state, how is the attention of the legislature secured?

CHAPTER XXX

COMPARISON OF NATIONAL GOVERNMENTS

Other Governments: their Relation. After we have completed our study of the local, state, and national government, there still remains for us to learn how other nations are governed and how we are affected by the relations of our government with other governments. This relation is regulated by international law. It consists of a body of usages, customs, maxims, and institutions of long standing, defining the duties and responsibilities of nations in their relation under certain conditions, but which no nation is bound to observe and yet whose violation would be considered as very bad form and might lead to armed interference. When international law is violated by individuals in the United States, they may be punished by due process of municipal law. Treaties (agreements) made between nations are binding upon the nations mentioned in the treaties. To facilitate communication between nations, recourse is had to diplomatic agents (representatives of one country residing in another). Matters of dispute may be settled by arbitration, embargo, reprisal, and retortion before resort to war is had. When war is declared, notice of some kind indicating the change in feeling must be made in order that the subjects of the two nations involved and the subjects of neutrals may know that a state of war exists and in order that they may observe the rules of international law in all matters relating to the combatants.

For a full discussion of international law, see School Civics, Chapter XXII.

England's Constitution. The government of Great Britain is a limited constitutional monarchy; that is, it has a constitution which defines the rights and privileges of the people and the crown. This constitution is largely unwritten, and what is written is not contained in a single document, as is the constitution of the United States. The written part is scattered through acts of Parliament and solemn agreements extending through the Middle Ages to the present time. The unwritten part consists of customs, maxims, usages, and institutions of long standing, which have come to have the force of written law. Thus the British constitution is an evolution which changes to meet changing conditions extending over many

centuries.

England's Legislature. The legislative department of the British government is called Parliament and is composed of two houses, the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The members of the House of Commons are chosen by universal suffrage by secret ballot for a term of five years. The members of the House of Lords hold their seats in four ways: by right of inheritance, by royal appointment, by right of ecclesiastical office, and by election. The parliament act of 1911, by limiting the legislative powers of the House of Lords, greatly increased those of the House of Commons. The English constitution places no legal limitations upon the power of Parliament. Parliament is therefore England, so far as its legal powers are concerned (see p. 196). A quorum (for Congress, see p. 222) necessary to do business is fixed at forty of the 670 members of the House of Commons and three of the 642 members of the House of Lords.