injustice to the state as well as to the individual. The object of criminal law and punishment is the correction of the fault in the offender - that is to say, the reformation of the criminal. If the criminal is reformed, the state is protected and life and property become permanently secure. If the offender is not reformed, the state is protected just so long as the offender is locked up, and when he is again given his freedom he returns to prey upon life and property. With some such ideal as this, the state has established reformatories at Elmira and Napanoch for men, and at Bedford and Albion for women, an agricultural and industrial school for boys at Industry, and one for girls at Hudson. These institutions are governed by boards of managers appointed by the governor, usually with the consent of the senate. The executive officer in charge of each institution, who is called a superintendent, is assisted by a corps of helpers, teachers, etc. In these reformatories schools are maintained and trades are taught, while some have farms connected with them.

State Prisons. In the treatment of our criminal class real progress has been made. The cruel and inhuman treatment which not infrequently resulted in the death of these "wards of the state" has in the main passed into history. So too has passed the striped prison garb, the shaving of one side of the head and face only, and similar badges of degradation. More and more will be taught to these people, to many for the first time, the lesson that the world owes no one anything but a chance to earn an honest living, to do a day's work, and enjoy the full fruits of one's labor. More and more will they be taught the lesson of economy as a part of prison life, earning there by honest actual labor a wage which has a market value, receiving their full pay for such, and with

it paying for their clothing, food, and shelter, the balance to be placed to their account and turned over to them with savings-bank interest when their terms have expired, and all to be done while attending excellent schools, learning a trade or the elements of a profession. Profitable employment under agreeable and healthful conditions and surroundings will do more to reduce the criminal class than all else besides. To accomplish this reformation in the criminal and therefore afford permanent protection to life and property in lieu of the present plan of temporary protection, our criminal classes must be placed in the keeping of highly educated humanitarians, men and women who have made penology a careful study, and who are neither tyrants nor sentimentalists. However, while this day is sure to come in the evolution of society, it has not yet arrived, and while many steps in the right direction have been taken, there is yet a long road to travel. At present we have state prisons at Dannemora and Matteawan for the criminal insane, and regular prisons at Sing Sing, Auburn, and Clinton. Each prison is in charge of a warden, and there is a resident physician and clergyman. The state superintendent of prisons is appointed by the governor, as is also the state prison commission of seven members. The state maintains a probation commission and a board of parole.

Other State Activities. By no means has the list of the state institutions and activities been exhausted. A few of the remaining are here mentioned: cancer laboratory at Buffalo for the study of this disease; Indian school at Iroquois; soldiers and sailors home at Bath; Watkins Glen, Niagara Reservation at Niagara Falls, and Fire Island state park for pleasure seekers; national guard (militia); Onondaga salt springs at Syracuse; Indian

reservations at Allegany, Cattaraugus, Tonawanda, Tuscarora, and for the tribe of Onondaga, the tribe of the St. Regis Indians, and the Seneca nation; state board of pharmacy, board of embalming examiners, watersupply commission, department of weights and measures, state printer, canal board, and numerous other boards and commissions.

The state also maintains a nautical school which gives practical instruction in navigation and seamanship, steam and electrical engineering, a part of which is given on the ship Newport.

QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT

1. Upon what grounds is the state justified in educating teachers for the public schools at state expense through normal schools?

2. What is the object of the state in maintaining an agricultural and a veterinary college? Is this justifiable?

3. What is the object of sending people to prison? Is the object the same in sending people to reformatories?

4. Give reasons why an unreformed criminal should not be given his liberty. Is this an argument against a definite term sentence?

5. Why should the state care for the criminal insane in separate institutions for the insane? Is one reason humanitarian?

6. Is the state justified in educating the blind and other deficients? If so, on what grounds?

7. The federal government pensions all soldiers and sailors who served in the Civil War, who were honorably discharged. Why should the state establish a home at Bath for our soldiers and sailors of the Civil War? Discuss fully.

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION

Resolved: That a farm of at least 500 acres and a school of agriculture and mechanic arts shall form a part of the equipment of all state prisons and reformatories, in which the prisoners may receive instruction and perform all manual labor connected therewith.

Resolved: That the state will be better served by a biennial session of the legislature limited to ninety days.

Resolved: That a tax of not less than one per cent upon the gross earnings of corporations operating within the state should be paid into the state treasury for the support of the state government.

Resolved: That a graduated inheritance tax should be placed upon all estates above $100,000 as follows: from $100,000 to $500,000, five per cent; from $500,000 to $1,000,000, ten per cent; from $1,000,000 to $2,000,000, twenty per cent, and fifty per cent for all estates exceeding $2,000,000; the funds thus obtained to be used equally in defraying the expenses of the state government, the improvement of prison facilities, good roads, public schools, and colleges.

CHAPTER XV

SUFFRAGE: HOW AND WHEN EXERCISED

Citizenship. Citizenship in a state depends upon citizenship in the United States. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the state wherein they reside, as provided by the Fourteenth Amendment to the federal constitution. Any foreigner, twenty-one years of age, a male, may become a naturalized citizen of the United States, (1) by living five years in the United States continuously, one of which years must be lived in the state where naturalization is sought; (2) by making oath before a court of record (a court having a clerk and seal), at least two years before being admitted to citizenship, that it is his intention to become a citizen and to renounce forever his allegiance to any foreign state or ruler and all titles or orders of nobility which he may possess; (3) by making a formal petition in due form; and (4) by making oath to support the constitution of the United States. In addition to all this the judge granting the certificate of citizenship must be convinced by at least two witnesses that the applicant is desirable and a believer in the principle of government as outlined in the federal constitution.

Suffrage a Privilege. The right to vote is not personal, belonging to every citizen. The right to vote is purely political, wholly within the power of the state to extend or withhold from any class of citizens. The United States