of money. This association has the task of studying poverty, not with a view to giving money to poor persons but to preventing people from becoming poor. If more attention were given to compulsory insurance, so that the death of the father would not leave his family without money, to employers' liability laws, so that workmen would be protected against accidents, and to the education of people for useful trades, there would be less need of charity.

116. Criminals. Every large city attracts to it the weak characters whom we call criminals. These people, who have got into the habit of living outside the law, find it much easier and more profitable to carry on their evil trade in the city than in the country. There are different kinds of criminals, but the main division is into those who commit crime repeatedly and by habit, and those who are first offenders. The former often seem to be almost beyond hope of reform. The latter generally need only a helping hand and a chance to become normal citizens again. In old times society looked upon criminals as enemies of the State; it prescribed punishments for them, and was disposed to rejoice at the suffering they underwent as a result of their evil deeds. But as civilization has progressed the notion of revenge in punishment has largely disappeared. The gov ernment used to hang a man for stealing. Now an effort is made to show him the error of his ways, and to make of him a useful citizen.

117. I Am My Brother's Keeper. All of these unfortunate abnormal people are in our charge. Many of them are in our city. We pass them on the street every day. We are living in comfort and with a certainty of good food and a comfortable bed. Many of them are never certain of anything; and some are in constant dread of the prison or

the asylum. What shall we do for these brothers of ours whom we wish to help and yet to whom we dare not give money for fear we will send them down to pauperism? The answer to this question may be found in an efficient department of charities and correction. This is not a particularly good name for it, but probably it is as good a one as we are likely to find. In Philadelphia it is called the Department of Public Welfare.

118. The Work of the Government. The department of charities and correction has many branches. In the first place it employs experts in criminal psychology. Such experts study the minds of those who commit crimes with a view to finding out what is best to do for them. Thus far not a great deal has been accomplished along this line; but the future may teach us much about the reasons why people commit crimes. The department studies other kinds of unfortunates also, and collects information which future generations may use. It collects exact information about those who need immediate help, and provides this help. It has charge of many institutions such as asylums, prisons, reformatories, and the like. Prisons and reformatories are themselves rapidly being reformed by the introduction of more humane methods in their management. With the reform of prisons is coming an improvement in the treatment of criminals after they have been released from the institution. Formerly it was almost impossible for exconvicts to find work; sometimes the government officials warned people not to employ them. Under such conditions it was almost impossible for a criminal to become a decent citizen. Now the government helps him to find employment, and acts as his friend during the months of uncertainty.

119. Education and Reconstruction. The whole purpose of an enlightened government in dealing with unfortunates is to do one or the other of two things: either to rebuild them into useful citizens through education, training, and encouragement; or, if this is impossible, to care for them as humanely as possible, so that they will neither live in misery nor injure others. The insane person and the habitual criminal must be kept shut up; the hopelessly crippled must be cared for; but most others have some hope of reconstruction. The blind may be taught trades; the deaf and dumb may learn to do almost any kind of manual labor and to render many kinds of higher service. It is often best to leave much of this work to the State government, which can do it on a large scale and therefore more economically than the city can.

120. The Duty of the Citizen. Our duty is to see that the government is so organized that efficient public servants will be employed to look after these unfortunates and to help in creating a public opinion that will support the government against the waves of disapproval which often come against all useful reforms. It is also our duty to persuade our fellow-citizens not to pauperize others nor encourage them to become parasites.

SUGGESTIONS AND QUESTIONS

1. What is the meaning of the saying, "I am my brother's keeper"?

2. Make a list of the kind of unfortunate people in your city whom it is the duty of the city to care for.

3. Make a list of the institutions in or near your city which care for the unfortunates. Which of these are paid for by the city?

4. Try to explain the reason why it is against the law in many cities to beg on the street.

5. Is there a charity organization society in your city? If not, how are the poor cared for?

6. Why is it better to give a poor man work than to give him money?

7. Why is it better to spend $1000 teaching a blind man a trade than to spend $500 merely to care for him in an asylum? 8. What officials in your city care for the unfortunates? 9. Who appoints these officials, and for how long do they serve?

10. What certainty is there that these officials have been trained or educated for their tasks? Do they understand the people who are under their care?

11. What control have the voters of the city over the care of the unfortunates? If there is a public demand that the method of caring for the poor be changed, how can this demand be made effective?

12. What sort of scientists does a department of charities and corrections require?

13. Is it likely that these scientists could be obtained by election?

14. How much salary is paid to one of the experts in this department? Is this as much as would be paid to a private expert in this same kind of work? Does your city spend enough on this work to give its unfortunates the best care?

CHAPTER XIII

STREETS AND PARKS

121. City Planning. Those who study the government of cities and the effort to make them better places to live in, speak of city planning as one of the most important things the officers have to attend to. To plan a city is to arrange its streets so that they will be built economically and conveniently; to encourage the placing of buildings of all sorts in such a way that the city will be beautiful and wholesome; and to arrange means of travel so that traffic can be easily handled. To plan a city requires that some persons think out the plan years in advance and persuade the people of the city to follow it after it has been made. This means that experts in city building must be employed and kept in office for many years. They must not be changed with every change of party control. This chapter speaks of some things the city planners have to think about.

122. Unplanned Cities. Most of our old cities grew up without any sort of arrangement beforehand. It has been said that the location of the streets of the older part of Boston were determined by the cows as they made paths going to and coming from pasture. The lower part of Manhattan Island in New York City has a confusion of streets in which it is almost impossible to find one's way. It would cost too much now to change the location of any of the streets in either old Boston or old New York. Expensive houses have been built on the narrow streets; there are no parks, and there is no order.