nize the need of experienced public servants change officers so frequently that no well-planned work can be done. They seem to think that the administration of a great water sys

tem is as safe in the hands of inexperienced people as in those of people who have given a lifetime to the study of the difficulties in the way of getting good water.

66. A Water Supply. When a great number of people

live in one place, as in a city, they need so much water that it is a difficult problem to find a supply large enough for them. The water must be free from germs of disease and from hurtful chemicals such as lime. Some cities use a hundred gallons of water a day for each resident,―man, woman, or child. Of course each person does not use so much as this, but that used by the street cleaning and fire departments, and the factories and other large undertakings helps to make up this average. If several cities are near together it is sometimes a matter of discussion between their governments how the supply of water shall be divided. Look at a map of eastern Massachusetts and see how near the cities are to each other. It is clear that there must be rivalry between these cities for a supply of pure water from the hills. If a city must take river or lake water it must employ scientists who know how to filter and purify the supply, else there is constant danger from disease.

67. Light. Some private houses maintain their own electric and gas plants, but to run these separate plants is expensive. For service of this sort the larger the plant the more cheaply the product can be furnished, for fewer people are needed to care for one large plant than for many small ones. But unless coöperation is under the control of skilful and efficient persons the light is sometimes so poor and the service so wasteful that it pays the private citizen to supply his own needs. The same statement is true of steam for heating purposes. Coöperation presents at the very beginning two great problems which we have not yet found a way to solve satisfactorily. The first of these is, Shall the city own or merely control the means of supplying these utilities? The second is, What price shall be charged for the service?

68. Monopoly Control. For our discussion of this problem of control let us use the water supply as an illustration. What is said of this utility may be almost as well said of the supply of gas and electricity. Suppose two companies were furnishing water to people in the same street. It would be necessary for both companies to pipe the streets. Each would also have to find a supply of surface water or maintain pumping stations. Some people think that this competition would reduce the price to the citizen. But it is clear that the work would cost two companies almost twice as much as it would cost one. The companies have to make a profit in addition to their expenses. Therefore the users would have to pay the cost of two lines of pipes and a profit to two companies. It is not difficult to see that one company can supply water more cheaply than two or three can. Monopoly means control without any competition. "But," the citizen says, "if there is only one company supplying water, that one will charge as much as it pleases; and of course it will please to charge a very high price."

69. Municipal Ownership or Control. It is clear that we cannot let a private company supply water to the city and charge as much as it likes. Some people think the city itself should supply it, and many cities do so. The city government borrows money through selling bonds to build a great water system. It then supplies the water and either charges each user in proportion to the amount used, or pays the interest on the bonds from taxes. Other cities prefer to have private companies supply the water, one company controlling the whole supply. In order to keep down the price under such an arrangement the city must have a contract with the company which limits the price to the citizen. Those who prefer this plan believe that private

management can get work done more cheaply and efficiently than the city can, and that a private company can make some money by efficient management even when it charges no more for the water than the city would charge. They hold this opinion because they believe we cannot get efficient public servants.

70. The Price. What shall be the price of the water? Service of this sort must be paid for by some one. If the city sells bonds to build the plant, interest must be paid to the bondholders, and provision must be made for gradually paying the principal of the bonds. In other words, a gallon of water will cost about the same price whether the city or a private company gives the service. If the private company does the work the price will be what it costs the company plus a profit; if the officers of the city do it the price will be what it costs without this profit but with the added expense of inefficient management if the officers are not carefully selected. There is no more difficult problem in city government than that of determining what the price should be. In those places where private service is used officers are sometimes appointed whose only duty it is to study the management of the system and report to the government what price the company should charge. If the city owns and runs the plant, what should the price be? Should the government charge enough to make money out of the service? If it does, the citizen who uses the water pays this money into the city treasury. Should the government supply the water at less than cost? If it does, the city must make up the difference; and to do this the citizen must pay higher taxes so that the government will have enough money for this expense. The cost must be paid by the citizen either in taxes or in water rent.

71. One Authority over All Public Service. A study of coöperation among the departments which supply public utilities shows very plainly the need of a well-organized city government. These departments must all use the streets, and thus must coöperate with the officers who build, clean, and repair the pavements. Suppose the gas or water supply is not under the same control as is the building of streets. The paving officers prepare to lay down a new surface without knowing what are the plans for laying new pipes. The pavement may have scarcely been completed before it must be broken up for a new water main. As soon as the street has been repaired the gas department may insist that it needs some new underground connections. It is easy to see that all of these utilities must be under one head, such as a general manager, who will see that the several departments coöperate.

SUGGESTIONS AND QUESTIONS

1. Where does your family get its water supply?

2. If it is piped in through the streets, where does it come from?

3. How do you know it is pure? Free from minerals, such as lime?

4. How much do you have to pay for it? What would it cost to dig a well for your house? How much work would you have to do pumping and carrying water?

5. How does the city keep people from wasting the water? 6. Who appoints the people who look after the water supply? 7. How is your house lighted? Do you use gas in your house? 8. Is the gas supplied by the city or by a private company? 9. Who decides how much the gas shall cost? Is the supply good?

10. Do you think that those who look after the water and gas should be elected or appointed?

11. Do you think new people should be appointed for this work whenever the city government changes from one party to the other?