and more difficult to divide the profits so that all will be satisfied. Because this is true the need of a well-organized government becomes more important all the time. There are only two ways of settling disputes between great bodies of people. One way is by reasoning together; the other way is by fighting. There is now ground for hope that wars between nations may cease. It would be a grievous calamity if fighting began between classes of people as soon as fighting between nations ended. We have seen that law is the expression of the best experience and common sense of the community, and that the community now means the whole world. As conditions change we shall have to reason together in our legislatures with greater and greater wisdom in order to shape our laws to meet public difficulties. Our education must improve and our constitutions be more carefully written in order that there may be wisdom and fairness enough to solve the problems of our complex society.

381. The Citizen. The citizen in the republic has great responsibilities to himself, to his family, and to the generations which are to come after him. The republic is our city, our State, our nation, and the world. It is difficult for us to remember that each person is only one of many millions, and that each often has a different opinion of what is right and best. It is difficult for us to learn to elect the best legislators and other leaders we can, and then submit quietly to the laws which they make whether we approve them or not. Each of us has the temptation to think that those who do not agree with us are dishonest or unfair. Generally they are as fair as we are, but they have different ideas. Remember that even in your associations and clubs fair-minded members do not always agree; and that in your

school it is almost impossible to make a rule with which all are pleased. Remember also that reason is the only basis of self-government.

SUGGESTIONS AND QUESTIONS

1. Read the fifth amendment of the constitution of the United States. What is meant there by taking property without due process of law? Does your State constitution contain a similar provision?

2. The newspapers contain frequent mention of socialists, and socialistic propaganda. Is this because these subjects are im ́portant in a self-governing country or because they make sensational reading? What is socialistic propaganda? Is it dangerous in a country where the majority rule, and where justice is expressed in law as nearly as we can arrive at justice?

3. How large is the socialistic vote in your community? How large a proportion of the people in your community could be called capitalists? Do both of these together make up near half of the voters? Can you think of any law that a majority of the people of your neighborhood want and cannot get through their government?

4. Marx was the leader of many of the socialists. He believed that the employers and the employés should work against each other and that one must destroy the other. Do you know many people who are not employed by some one? What of the lawyers, doctors, railroad managers, bank officers?

5. Many political problems are problems of the definition of property and our rights to hold it and do with it as we please. Mention two or three such problems. Is there one of these on which a majority in your neighborhood may not have its way as soon as it determines what is wise?

6. Do any people in your neighborhood abuse property? That is, do they live extravagant and useless lives because they happen to have too much property? What would you suggest doing with such people? Can you write out a law for them that would not do injustice to industrious people who have property for which they have worked? Try to do so.

7. Would you like to turn over the conservation of our natural resources to the average person who calls himself a revolutionary socialist? Why not?

8. Make a list of vested interests. Take any one of those in the list and find out how the present owners got it. Select some person whom you know and who criticises these vested interests. Do you think he would manage them for the community better than the present owners, on the average? Why do you think so?

9. Are labor unions made up of either socialists or capitalists? Are they simply ordinary working people as are nine tenths of us all? Is it wise for them to use violence in their strikes? What would be the result of an effort by a union to resist the law? If all combined would they make up a majority which could win their way by force? If so, could they win it by voting?

10. If a rich man tries to get his way by fraud is he a fair sample of any class of our people? Do you know any rich men who have done this? See if you can write down the date and place when and where he did so. Was it only a sensational report you were thinking of?

11. Property has grown up because experience has shown it to be the best means of getting people to produce. Abuses are associated with it, and it does some harm. Shall we remove this stimulus to do the work of the world? Food is a necessity for those who work. Some people are gluttons and abuse the fact that they have too much food. We are not yet wise enough to know how to let a man eat what he wishes without letting him injure his health if he wishes. Try to write out a statement of how we may get people to work industriously without letting them keep the property they produce.

CHAPTER XL

PARTIES AND LEADERS

382. Parties Begin. When Washington was elected President there was no opposition to him; he was the choice of all the people. Many supported the new Federal constitution because they knew he would be the President under it. There were no parties at that time. He appointed Jefferson Secretary of State and Hamilton Secretary of the Treasury, and at the cabinet table one sat at his right hand and the other at his left. These two men were as different in their political views as two men could well be and they at once began to oppose each other. Each tried to control the government by influencing the President; each was determined to control it after Washington left the Presidency. To accomplish this each soon began to build up a group of men who he thought would help him. These groups were the beginnings of our political parties. Jefferson's was called the Democratic-Republican, and Hamilton's the Federalist.

383. Party Machines Begin. At first these parties were under the leadership of members of Congress, and nominations for office in the Federal government were made by committees of Congressmen. But political machines soon grew up outside of Congress, and these machines began the custom of calling conventions to make nominations. The politicians also called conventions to nominate officers for the State governments and for the cities. As

soon as they had perfected the machines politics had become pretty well organized. In each city and State were formed committees for each party. The chairmen of these committees ran the politics of the country. Most of the citizens paid little attention to what the machines were doing; they were satisfied to leave politics to those who wished to give their time to it.

384. Politics Disorganized the Government. After the party machines were fully formed the government began to be less democratic. That is, the governors lost power and the private politicians gained it. This was accomplished by changing the State constitutions and by introducing the "spoils system." The constitutions were changed so that a large number of officers were elected instead of appointed. The people knew nothing about these officers; the governors whom the people elected did not have the power to appoint them; therefore they were selected and put in office by the machines through a long-ballot election. These officers whom the machines put into power did not leave the civil servants in office, however well they did their work, but removed them after each change of parties in the elections and put in their places party workers who had helped the machine to win the election. The Federal constitution was not changed, but the machines controlled the conventions, and so they also had great influence in the Congress and with the Federal government.

385. Leaders and Bosses. The difference between a leader and a boss is that one is willing to take public office and to become responsible for what he does; the other merely controls a public office through a private machine and is not responsible for the people he puts into office or for their work. We cannot have self-government without