to school at least 16 weeks each year, unless excused by the school officers. To entitle a district to a share in the public funds, a school must be taught therein for at least 3 months each year, but provision is made for terms of 6 months. No denominational or sectarian influences are allowed in any public school. Teachers must report to the county superintendents, they to the State superintendent annually, and he to the governor biennially.

FINANCES.

Public schools are sustained from the interest on a State school fund, which is apportioned to each county according to the number of youth 6 to 18 therein; a State school tax of half a mill on the dollar of taxable property; and a county tax of from 15 to 50 cents on the $100. When these funds are not sufficient to keep schools open at least 6 months of the year, trustees must levy a district tax sufficient to make up the deficiency. The schools may be taught for a longer term by additional taxes, if the voters of the district so decide, or by rate bills levied by the trustees on persons sending children to school. State and county school funds are apportioned by county superintendents to the several districts, 40 per cent. of them in proportion to the number of teachers employed, one teacher being assigned for each 100 children or fraction thereof; the remaining funds, according to the number of youth 6 to 18 years of age.

CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS.

ADMINISTRATION.

Each village, town, or incorporated city constitutes but one school district, the schools therein being under the control of a board of trustees elected by the people, numbering from 3 to 5 members, according to the population.

SCHOOLS OF VIRGINIA CITY.

Virginia City, with a population of 10,917 in 1880, reported, in 1884-'85, school youth (6 to 18 years of age), 1,808; enrolled in public schools, 1,408; average daily attendance, 868. These numbers indicate a decrease in the past 2 years of 40 in school youth, of 379 in enrollment, and of 186 in attendance, the number of teachers being reduced from 25 to 20. The schools were classed as primary, grammar, and high schools, and the length of term increased from 200 to 294 days. The decrease in attendance upon the public schools is possibly due to the fact that the attendance upon private schools increased from 156 to 1,550. The estimated value of school property in the city was $20,500.

PREPARATION AND QUALIFICATIONS OF TEACHERS.

GENERAL STATE REQUIREMENTS.

The county superintendent and 2 persons appointed by him constitute a board of examination, of which he is chairman. Said board grants certificates of the first and second grades to persons who pass a satisfactory examination in the branches of study pursued in each specified grade. Certificates of the first grade, for teaching unclassified, grammar, and high schools, are good for 3 years; of the second grade, for teaching primary schools, 2 years. The State board of education grants State certificates, and any certificate may be renewed upon evidence of successful teaching, without re-examination.

STATE NORMAL TRAINING.

The only provision made by the State for the training of its teachers appears to be in its State and county institutes. The State superintendent, with the consent of the State board of education, may convene a State teachers' institute annually, continuing not less than 5 days, nor more than 10, and may engage such teachers and lecturers as he deems advisable. The expenses incurred, to be paid out of the general fund, must not exceed $100 annually. County superintendents may hold one teachers' institute or more annually, if authorized by the county board of commissioners, the expenses of such institutes not to exceed $100 in any year. The State superintendent says, however, that no county institute was held in the State in 1884. The eastern and western divisious of the State Teachers' Institute met at Elko and Gold Hill, respectively, in December, 1884. A full account of their proceedings is given further on, under the head of "Educational conventions."

SECONDARY INSTRUCTION.

PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOLS.

High schools may enter into the public school system whenever the funds are sufficient to sustain them, and competent and legally qualified teachers must be employed. One such school is reported in Virginia City, statistics not given. The whole number in the State in 1884 was 5.

SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION.

STATE UNIVERSITY.

The State University of Nevada, by Act of legislature, was removed from Elko to Reno in the summer of 1885, and gave promise of much improvement. For the erection of the new building at Reno, the Act appropriated $10,000, to be added to the amount given by Washo County.

Two years are given to preparatory studies, followed by a university course of one year, including military tactics. For admission, candidates must be at least 15 years of age, and pass a satisfactory examination in the branches of a common English education.

INSTITUTION FOR THE HIGHER INSTRUCTION OF YOUNG WOMEN.

Bishop Whitaker's School for Girls (Protestant Episcopal), Reno, presents a course of superior instruction, covering 4 years of 40 weeks each. In addition to the higher English branches, French, German, instrumental and vocal music, drawing, and painting are taught. There were 90 students during the year, of whom 30 were in the preparatory department and 50 in the collegiate, 10 being special students.

SCIENTIFIC AND PROFESSIONAL INSTRUCTION.

SCIENTIFIC.

The State University provides a limited amount of scientific instruction, including mineralogy, metallurgy, and assaying.

PROFESSIONAL

No institutions for instruction in THEOLOGY, LAW, or MEDICINE, are reported from this State.

SPECIAL INSTRUCTION.

EDUCATION OF THE DEAF AND THE BLIND.

Provision is made by the State for the instruction of its deaf and blind youth at the institution in Berkeley, Cal. Three Nevada pupils were taught here during the year, for whose instruction and transportation the State appropriated $2,500. Of this amount, $1,367 remained unexpended at the end of the year. The common school branches are taught, also carpentry, type-setting, and blacksmithing for the boys, and sewing, knitting, cooking, and general housework for the girls.

EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS.

"A

The eastern division of the Nevada State Teachers' Institute held its fifth annual session December 26-27, 1854, at Elko, Hon. C. S. Young, superintendent of public instruction, in the chair. Among the subjects brought before the convention and discussed were, "Methods in history," "The practical teacher," "Reading and spelling," "Our public schools," "School supervision," "Elocution," "Arithmetic," " popular cry," ""English grammar," "Ungraded schools," and "Horace Mana." It was resolved that the legislature be petitioned to provide means whereby every school district in the State may have at least six months of school in each year; to make provision for State certificates and life diplomas in the State; to employ both State and county supervision; and to pay more liberal salaries to county superintendents, to enlarge their powers and duties, and to allow them traveling expenses. The western division of the institute held its fifth annual meeting December 29-31, 1884, at Gold Hill, Superintendent Young presiding. Some of the subjects discussed at the eastern divisioù were brought out; others were "Music in the public schools," "The uses of history as a study, and the best methods of teaching the same," "Nevada's school system," "Fourth primary work," "Our country schools," "English grammar and language lessons," "Grammar and composition," "Henry W. Longfellow," "The use and abuse of text books," "Criticism on popular methods of primary instruction," "Nevada's school laws," and "Arnold of Rugby." There were over 80 teachers in attendance and a large number of other persons. Letters were read from prominent educators, one from Senator J. P. Jones, expressing deep interest in the progress of education in Nevada. Resolutions were adopted similar to those of the eastern division, also one to urge upon the legislature the necessity for the establishment of a normal school in the State; and as the amount appropriated for defraying the expenses of teachers' institutes ($100) was entirely inadequate, it was resolved to petition the legislature to increase the amount to at least $300 per

annum.

CHIEF STATE SCHOOL OFFICER.

Hon. CHARLES S. YOUNG, State superintendent of public instruction, Carson City. [Elected in November, 1882: term, January, 1883, to January, 1887.]

(From reports of Hon. J. W. Patterson, State superintendent of public instruction, for the two years above indicated.)

15,308

17, 640

2, 381, 577

2,388, 942

STATE SCHOOL SYSTEM.

GENERAL CONDITION.

The public school system of New Hampshire has entered upon a new era, inaugu rated by the new legislation since 1883. The most important feature of this is the change from the old school district system, which has been abolished, the town being made the unit. This change was widely called for, and is fully approved.

The advantages are apparent, the purpose being to decrease the number of schoo in a town, increase the attendance in the united schools, and thus equalize the oppor

tunities of learning; also to increase the pay of teachers (without increase of taxation), and thus secure more efficient work. Then, by uniting the districts of a town and placing all under one board of supervision, it is hoped to avoid the difficulties which have impaired the usefulness of many schools, and to give to most towns a graded system and the advantages of a high school. The State superintendent says that of the 2,684 public schools in the State, 804, or nearly one-third, number only 12 scholars or less, and 307, or nearly one-eighth, average 6 or less. By so locating the schools as to have them average 30 pupils to a school, the number may be reduced to 2,122, or 562 less than now. The average annual cost of each school was $187; this multiplied by 562 would give $105,094, which could be used to lengthen the school term in the sparsely populated sections, and secure more accomplished and experienced teachers. "It is impossible," says the superintendent, "fully to realize the improvement which this change may effect in the educational opportunities of the State, or how greatly it may enhance the knowledge and mental discipline of our young people, especially in the rural districts." Besides this, it is estimated that a saving of nearly $25,000 annually, heretofore spent for school accommodations, will result under the new system from lessening the number of school-houses.

Nor is this the most important item of reform hoped for from this change to the town system. There are sections in the State whose educational condition can be credited only on the official statement of the State superintendent, which he affirms is neither untruthful nor extravagant. He says that there are some districts whose accommodations for the education of children indicate an intellectual and moral sense but little above the level of barbarism. In these localities, to save the paltry pittance of a school tax, the pupils are crowded into hovels in which for several hours they breathe an atmosphere reeking with unwholesome odors and loaded with disease, are compelled to sit in chilling draughts that are ruinous to health, and that fill the churchyards with victims of parental meanness. These wrecks of a bygone age are often located near stagnant frog-ponds or miasmatic bogs festering with germs of disease, and are supplied with contaminated water, if at all. The seats are engines of torture, often effecting a permanent deformity. These conditions, it is hoped, will soon disappear, either from a sense of shame or by the force of law.

Still much has been done, and much is now being done, to improve the school buildings, grounds, out-houses, and ventilation. Scattered through the rural districts may be seen many convenient and attractive edifices, ample in size and pleasant in location. In the cities and larger villages structures of a higher order have been erected and furnished in a style adapted to approved methods of education. During the 2 past years 40 such buildings were erected, of which 14 were added in 1884-'83.

The new law requiring instruction in physiology and hygiene, says a town superintendent, is popular, and, so far as taught, has created much interest.

The provision of free text books, now authorized by law, is another step in advance, meeting a great evil in the small districts-a lack of uniformity in books.

The statistical summary presents, on the whole, an encouraging view of the year's work. The decrease in enrollment is ascribed to the fact that many of the pupils have been withdrawn and sent to private schools. These, the State superintendent suggests, should be open to the inspection of the State officers, and their pupils registered and returned as other scholars are.

ADMINISTRATION.

The general educational interests of the State are under the control of (1) a superintendent of public instruction appointed biennially by the governor and council; (2) a board of commissioners of the literary fund, consisting of the governor, secretary, and treasurer; (3) a board of trustees of the State normal school. For towns, there are school boards of 3 persons, elected for 3 years, and in any town which may so decide, a superintendent of schools. For districts, there were formerly a moderator, a clerk, and a prudential committee; but under chapter 43 of the State laws of 1885 the old school districts have been abolished, and the town made the unit of the school system, except in the case of districts organized under special acts, which may retain their organizations if they so choose. Women may hold school offices and may vote in school meetings.

The public schools are free to all resident children of school age, and children 8-14 years of age are required to attend a public or private school, or receive instruction at home, at least 12 weeks in every year, 6 of which, in the case of a public school pupil, must be consecutive. No child under 14 years of age may be employed in any manufacturing establishment unless he has attended 6 months, or the full term of the school taught in his district the preceding year; none under 16 who have not attende at least 12 weeks during the year preceding, unless such can read and write well moreover, they are not to be employed except in vacation, and none under 10 may bộ employed at all.

The owner or agent of a manufactory employing a child under 16 years of age, and uncertified by the school committee as eligible to be employed, becomes liable to a

fine not exceeding $20 for each offense. Parents or guardians of children 8-14 years of age violating this law forfeit $10 for the first and $20 for each subsequent offense. SCHOOL FINANCES.

The public schools are sustained mainly from a town tax on polls and ratable estates, from a literary fund arising from a tax on the capital stock of banking corporations and on savings-bank deposits, and from a fund derived from the sale of public lands.

NEW LEGISLATION.

As already noted under the revised school laws of 1885, the old school district system is abolished, and the town made the unit of the school system.

An amendment passed in 1883 made instruction in physiology and hygiene with reference to the effect of alcoholic stimulants and narcotics on the human system obligatory in all schools sufficiently advanced, and another of the same year permitted towns or districts to raise money, by taxation or otherwise, for supplying the scholars in the common schools with text books free of charge.

SCHOOL SYSTEMS OF CITIES WITH 7,500 OR MORE INHABITANTS.

ADMINISTRATION.

Towns and cities, as already mentioned, have school boards of education of 3 persons, elected for 3 years, for the control of public schools. A superintendent may be elected or appointed in such manner and for such terms as the ofty, by an ordinance, may provide.

Concord shows a gain of 54 in enrollment, and of 32 in average daily attendance, but employed 8 fewer teachers, and expended for public schools $6,285 less than in 1883-84. There were 55 public schools, 40 being graded, including a high school, the sessions including 159 days, taught in 30 school-houses, valued, with other school property, at $182,615. St. Paul's private school of high grade had 275 male students. Teachers of public schools for the year are said to have been competent, and, in the main, successful. The committee having in charge the outlying districts of the city was doing what it could to make a more equal provision of school facilities in those localities.

Dover, according to the statistics reported, did not hold its own as compared with 1883-81. While it gained 71 in school youth, and expended $2,196 more during the year, it lost 629 in enrollment, 451 in average daily attendance, and employed 3 fewer teachers. The 39 public schools are embraced in one legally organized district, 29 of them being graded, including a high school. The school term comprised 175 days. There were 18school buildings, 1 built during the year, and all valued, with other school property, at $116,200. Of the 931 in average attendance, 135 were pursuing higher branches. A private school reports 45 pupils enrolled. One hundred children between 5-15 years of age, according to the reports, were not in any school.

Manchester reports 80 public schools, 66 of which, including a high school, are graded. These schools were taught 184 days, in 24 school-houses, valued, with other school property, at $317,725. Compared with 1883-'84, there was a decrease of 344 in enrollment, and of $14,395 in expenditure for public schools, while there was an increase of 152 in average attendance. The schools are classed as primary, ungraded, grammar, high, and evening schools. One special teacher in music was employed. The remarkable feature of the Manchester school system is the enrollment of about 2,500 in private and church schools, which is nearly 61 per cent. of the entire enrollment in the public schools.

Nashua shows, as compared with 1883-'84, a falling off of 370 in enrollment, and an increase of 66 in average daily attendance, with 12 more teachers, while it expended for public schools $8,457 more. For its 61 schools there were 17 school buildings, which, with other school property, were valued at $232,395, $10,660 being for apparatus. Public