mous work published by a Protestant clergyman of Wurtemburg under the title "The Free Church," (Die Freie Kirche, Stuttgart, 1874.) The question of the normal relation between the State Government and the religious creeds is at present agitating the minds of all parties in Germany to a higher degree than at any time during the last three centuries. The bold claims against modern society which the Roman Catholic Church has again brought forward at the Vatican Council, and the exciting conflicts between the German Government and the Catholic bishops of that country, have awakened for the subject a universal interest. The idea of an entire separation between Church and State is undoubtedly losing ground among the liberal parties which, during the last twenty years, had in most countries of Europe given their adhesion to Cavour's principle of a free Church in a free State. The fear now begins to spread that an unlimited permission given to the religious denominations to regulate their Church affairs as they please would greatly strengthen the position of the Roman Catholic Church. There is now a general tendency to insist on the right of the State to exercise a strict supervision over the Churches, and use its influence for keeping down, as much as possible, doctrines and practices which would destroy the peaceful relations between members of different religious persuasions. The complicated relations between Church and State have called forth in Germany a very extensive literature on ecclesiastical law, (Kirchenrecht.) All the students of Theology, as well as of Law, at the German universities have to attend courses of lectures on Church law; and as now every lawyer in Germany may expect that he may have to deal with legal questions concerning Church affairs, a great impulse has been given by the recent conflicts to the study of the Church law. Among the Protestant works of the Church law, that by the late Professor Ludwig Apemilius Richter, of Berlin, has long been recognized as the most prominent. A thoroughly revised edition of this work, which gives due consideration to the controversies of the last years, has just been published by Professor Dove, of Goettingen, one of the most gifted pupils of Richter. (Lerbuch des Kirchenrechtes, 7th edition. Leipzic, 1871-1874.) The new editor is a decided opponent of the separation between Church and State. "The separation," he says, "is as little the establishment of a normal relation between the two powers, as divorce is the normal aim of marriage. On the contrary, the State and the Christian Church have been called by God to an intimate connection, just as the individual man is both a religious and a political being."

ART. IX-FOREIGN LITERARY INTELLIGENCE.

GERMANY.

THE number of new works which are published in Germany on the late David Friedrich Strauss, and his theological books, especially his last work, The Old and New Creed," continues to be very large. Among them we find one from Bruno Bauer, a theological writer who about thirty years ago, when he was lecturer on theology at the University of Bonn, attracted some attention by the boldness of his attacks on the orthodox theology and the authenticity of the Bible. He went even further in his negative views than Strauss, and distinguished himself particularly by the violence of his language. Being deposed from his professorship, by the Government of Prussia, in 1842, he wrote in the following year a work, entitled "Unvailed Christianity," which was to appear in Zurich, Switzerland, but was seized by the police before its publication and destroyed. A "General Literary Gazette," (Allgemeine Literatur Zeitung, Charlottenburg, 1843,) which he began in the same year, was discontinued the next year. He then published a series of works on the political history of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and a "Ilistory of the French Revolution until the Establishment of the Republic,” (3 vols., Leipzig, 1847;) "History of Germany during the French Revolution and the Rule of Napoleon," (2 vols., Charlottenburg, 1846;) “History of the Politics, Civilization, and Enlightenment of the Eighteenth Century," (4 vols., 1842-5,) and complete "History of the Party Struggles in Germany during the Years 1842 to 1846," (3 vols., 1847.) At the same time he continued his studies on the origin and the early history of the Christian Church, and published, among other works, "Critical Examination of the Gospels," (2 vols., 1850 to 1851,) the "Acts of the Apostles," (Berlin, 1850,) and a "Critical Examination of the Pauline Epistles," (Berlin, 1850.) From 1850 to 1873 he published but little, and, to the great astonishment of all who knew his past career, wrote for the newspapers and other publications of the ultra-conservative party of Prussia. He now, after a silence of more than twenty years, appears again as a theological writer by a work entitled "Philo, Strauss, and Renan and Primitive Christianity." (Philo, Strauss, and Renan und das Unchristenthum, Berlin, 1874.) He says in the introduction that he will now bring his literary labors to a close. He gives in this new work at first a treatise on what he calls "the Jewish prologue to Christianity," that is, "the outline of the nucleus of the Gospel history," which had been drawn up by the Jew Philo before it entered into effect, and the first draft of the fundamental ideas of the so-called Pauline Epistles and of the Epistle to the Hebrews, as it is found in the writings of the Alexandrine master. Bruno Bauer is of opinion that Strauss and Renan are entirely mistaken in assuming that long before the appearance of Jesus in public there was in the consciousness of the Jewish people the ideal of a Messiah, the principal features of which the Christian Church transferred to

Jesus. In opposition to this view, he undertakes to show that Philo, and through him not only the Alexandrine Jewish school, but also the Greek philosophy from Heraclitus to the Stoics had a counteracting influence upon the origin of Christianity. He also announces that this work will soon be followe by another, entitled "Seneca and Paul," (Seneca and Paulus.) The work of Bauer is likely to give a new impulse to the investigation of the relation in which Philo stands to Christianity.

A biographical sketch of David Friedrich Strauss has been published by Wilhelm Lang, one of the leaders of the radical party in the Reformed State Churches of Switzerland. (David Friedrich Strauss, eine Charakteristik, Leipzig, 1874.) The author is one of the most prolific writers of. the rationalistic school of German theology, and has published, among numerous other works, an "Outline of Christian Dogmatics for Thinking Christians." (Versuch einer Christ. Dogmatik. Berlin, 1858. 2d edit. 1868.) The "Christian Church,” (Die Christliche Kirche, 1860.) 'Martin Luther," (1870.) Religious Addresses," (Religiōse Reden, Zurich, 1872.) "The Life of Jesus and the Church of the Future," (Das Leben Jesu und die Kirche der Zaukunft, 1872.) He also was from 1859 to 1871 editor of the leading periodical of his party, the "Zeitstimmen aus der Reformirten Kirche der Schweiz."

The work of Wilhelm Maurenbrecher, "Essays and Sketches on the Time of the Reformation,” (“Studien und Skitzen zur Geschichte der Reformations zeit. Leipzig, 1874,) is a valuable contribution to the history of the Reformation of the sixteenth century. The first three essays relate to the history of Spain, describing the rise and progress of the Reformation in that country, and the attempts made by the Spanish kings to reform the Spanish Catholic Church. The third essay is directed against the attempt of Bergenroth to prove that Queen Joanna was never insane. Gustav Bergenroth, a German historian, who for several years lived in California and in 1856 settled in England, had been commissioned by the Master of Rolls to report on the important discoveries in the archives of Simancas, and he pursued his task amid great difficulties at Simancas, and in London, Brussels, and Ireland. His account of the story of Queen Joanna in the supplementary volume of the calendar of Spanish papers produced quite a sensation in the literary world, as it intended, on the basis of unpublished documents in the Spanish archives, to refute the report which thus far had been generally regarded by historians as a well-established fact, that Queen Joanna had been insane. Maurenbrecher stands up for the correctness of the current opinion, and most of the critics which have taken notice of the controversy have taken sides with him. The fourth sketch, on Charles V., forms the transition to the German Reformation to which the fifth, sixth, and seventh essays are devoted. The book closes with an essay on the "Universal Church in the Time of the Reformation and the Churches of the Several Countries."

A new work on the relation of the Roman Catholic Church to Slavery, Religious Toleration, and Freedom of Conscience, has recently been published by J. Buchmann, one the prominent men of the German Old Cath

olics. (Die unfreie und die Freie Kirche, Breslau, 1873.) The author was formerly one of the most violent German champions of the Roman Catholic Church against Protestantism, but, like many other Catholic theologians of Germany, he has found it impossible to submit to the new doctrine of Papal Infallibility. He is a very fluent and forcible writer, though not profound. It is surprising that he has nothing to say on the attitude which the Church of Rome has observed with regard to the slavery question and the civil war in the United States.

The literature on the Augsburg Confession has received a very valuable addition by a work of Professor Plitt, entitled "The Apology of the Augustane Historically Explained," (Die Apologie der Augustana historisch erklärt, Erlangen, 1873.) The author belongs to the Lutheran Church, and advocates the continuance of the binding character of the Augsburg Confession and of the Apology for the clergy and members of the Lutheran Church. He published, in 1867 and 1868, a work in two volumes on the Confession of Augsburg itself, which is one of the standard works on the subject..

The views of Thomas Aquinas on the relations between Church and State are the subject of a work by Prof. J. J. Baumann, a Protestant, who, on the title-page, calls him the greatest theologian and philosopher of the Catholic Church. (Die Staatslehre des Heil. Thomas von Aquino, Leipzig, 1873.) The author has extracted and literally translated, from the principal works of Thomas, those passages which give his views of the relation of the Church and Society. He regards the views of Thomas on royalty, constitutional monarchy, and kindred questions, not only as ingenious, but even as capable of being carried through in the civilized States of the present age. The theory of the proper relation between Church and State, as set forth by Thomas, appears to him as one lacking originality, and resulting from the letter of the Catholic dogma.

The authenticity of both the Gospel of St. John and the Revelation has found a new defender in the work of H. Gebhardt on "The Doctrinal System of the Revelation, and its Relation to the Gospel and the Epistles of John," (Der Lehrbegriff der Apocalypse, Gotha, 1873.) The work is reviewed in the last number of the "Studien und Kritiken," by Prof. Weiss, of Kiel, who agrees with the author in believing that the Revelation no less than the Gospel is a work of the Apostle John, though he regards many of the arguments used by the author as not cogent.

ART. X.-QUARTERLY BOOK-TABLE.

Religion, Theology, and Biblical Literature.

Delivery and Development of Christian Doctrine. The Fifth Series of the Cunningham Lectures. By ROBERT RAINY, D.D., Professor of Divinity and Church History, New College, Edinburgh. 8vo., pp. 409. Edinburgh: T. T. Clark. New York: Scribner & Armstrong. Price, $5. 1874. Development is a word that not only rules in science, but is playing an important part in theology. How our creeds, from the primitive form, became what they are; what they have now a right to be, and what they are likely to become, are questions now exciting a large interest. In the Church of professed immutability Dr. Newman has stated a doctrine of development which affords scope for an unknown amount of change in the unchangeable. Dr. Rainy frankly avows himself a holder of the Reformed Creed, that is, of Geneva; and the problem is for him to show by what legitimate development its contradictions of the primitive doctrine of the Church comes out from said doctrine. This he fails to accomplish; and yet he has given us a valuable book, abounding with eloquent paragraphs, acute discussions, and pregnant suggestions.

Two lectures are devoted to tracing the divine scheme of development in giving us the successive portions of revelation. Three lectures trace the nature of that development by which the Church has in successive centuries come to a more explicit understanding of the revelation itself. The closing part discusses creeds, the right in the Church of forming such documents, and the degree of freedom they should allow of modification and reconstruction. The proper office of creeds is acutely discussed. It is our impression that a republication of this work in America in reduced size, and rendered more accessible to our impecunious Christian scholars, would find a general welcome and circulation.

The following passage, on the formation of heresies, may seem to some readers curiously suggestive in regard to some movements in our own Church at the present hour: "Commonly, as has often been remarked, these heresies arise in some such way as this: Some Christian idea, or some one aspect of a Christian principle, was laid hold of in an intensely exclusive manner. It began to be urged willfully and impatiently. It was developed extravagantly, and conclusions were urged as needful in order to its being duly recognized and held, which were perverse and erroneous, and traversed some other principle of Scripture teaching; and finally,