For most college students in America the Old World of European history is almost as truly an undiscovered country as was the New World to early explorers. The wonderful success of this department of study wherever it has been newly introduced, whether in Ann Arbor, Ithaca, Amherst, or Baltimore, is due in no small degree to the freshness and novelty of the subject. For an American student to discover Europe historically seems like a new creation dawn, or like a veritable renaissance. It is therefore always well for the pilot of an historical department to steer boldly, as did President White, across great seas of human experience. It is not absolutely necessary to make new charts for every voyage, or to explore every coast-line in minutest detail; but let the pilot sight the great headlands of history and put in, now and then, at good harbors. A wise voyager will see all he can of European history, or of any great country's life, but he is not unwise who tarries long amid the associations of Rome or Florence, Monte Casino, or Saint Gall, or the smallest of Swiss villages if they suit an historical purpose.

PRESIDENT WHITE'S SPECIAL COURSES.

It is perfectly clear that President White has himself specialized historical instruction in the most attractive of all fields, from a political point of view, namely, the state-life of modern Europe. He prepared thirty-seven special lectures upon France, six upon Italy, three upon Spain, four upon Austria, six upon the Netherlands, five upon Prussia, five upon Russia, two upon Poland, and three upon the Turkish power. In this great field of modern historical politics France was evidently Mr. White's first choice; and, in this special territory, the French Rev. olution was clearly the supreme attraction. Very early in life he is said to have conceived the idea of writing an American history of this great revolutionary struggle in France.

It appears from the preface to President White's syllabus that very valuable collections of materials were made by him for the study of French history from original sources. A bare enumeration of some of these collections is highly suggestive: 1. An extended series of Mazarinades, originals and reprints, with other materials for the history of the rise of absolute monarchy in France. 2. The Vieil-Castel collection, brought by Mr. White to this country in 1863, and "comprising more than five thousand pamphlets published during the entire period from the calling of the States General in 1789 to the restoration of the Bourbons, and carefully encased and classified with reference to every important man and events of the whole struggle. (3) A collection of the Assignats and paper money of all the important issues, including those of John Law, Louis XVI, and the Convention, Tickets of Subsistence, Caricatures, both French and English, and a very complete series of the Bulletins of the Revolutionary Tribunal. (4) A collection of Newspapers of the French Revolution, embracing sets more or less

complete of those issued by Mirabeau, Marat, Robespierre, Prudhomme, and Peltier, and a complete series of the Moniteur, with the Introduction, covering every day from 1789. (5) A collection relating to the period since the first Revolution, especially to the First Empire and Restoration, the Revolution of 1848, the Second Empire, and the rule of the Commune."

Mr. White also says in his preface to the syllabus of his lectures: "In my intervals of other work I have made some investigations in the archives of France-have studied on the spot nearly every great event of the Revolution-have made several journeys in various parts of France, including excursions on foot through Picardy, Normandy, Brittany, Touraine, and the borders of La Vendée, and have talked with many who had a very intimate and direct knowledge of those great events. While thus satisfying my love for a study which has fascinated me, I have hoped to do something to counteract the influence of prejudiced English historians and the American dilutions of their works; and to give that view of the struggle, which, so far from dis heartening young men, will strengthen their faith and hope."

Thus we are prepared to find in Mr. White's syllabus a very original and highly suggestive view of French history and particularly of the French Revolution. After a rapid review of the general topics connected with this special course, one or two analyses will be singled out for detailed examination. The course comprised lectures on the establishment of French unity, centralization, beginnings of intellectual relations with Europe; the Renaissance; the Reformation and Wars for Religion; Henry IV; Rise of Parliamentary Power in France; the Administration of Richelieu; Administration of Mazarin; St. Vincent de Paul; Louis XIV (two lectures); the Regency and Louis XIV; French Institutions before the Revolution; French Philosophers, their Attack on Institutions; Louis XVI; influence of American ideas upon the French Revolution (two lectures); the French Revolution (six lectures) the National Legislative Assembly (two lectures); the National Conven. tion (three lectures); the Directory (two lectures); the Consulate; the First Empire (four lectures); the Restoration (1824); Louis Philippe ; the Republic of 1858 and the Second Empire.

From this list of general topics may be selected, as perhaps most interesting and suggestive to American readers, the special subject of the Influence of American Ideas upon the French Revolution. The following detailed syllabus will serve to show Mr. White's method of presenting a theme, which occupied two successive lectures:

THE INFLUENCE OF AMERICAN IDEAS UPON THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.

Purpose of these lectures: Outline of history preceding the French Revolution; want of practical direction to French ideas of liberty and reform; general influence of America in giving this practical direction.

First Lecture.

I. THE INFLUENCE OF FRANKLIN.

1. On the nation directly. 2. Through Turgot.

3. Through Condorcet.

4. Through Chamfort.

5. Through Morellet.

6. Through a number of others of whom Mirabeau and Chénier are representatives.

II. INFLUENCE OF JEFFERSON.

1. Reciprocal influence between Jefferson and the leaders of French thought. 2. Jefferson's influence through Lafayette-through Rabaud St. Etienne-through the Girondists. (Federal ideas of the Girondists.)

3. Relations with Robespierre falsely imputed to Jefferson. The dividing line between American influence and want of influence in the French Revolution.

III. THE INFLUENCE OF FRENCH OFFICERS RETURNED FROM THE AMERICAN REVOLU

TION.

1. Lafayette-his influence in bringing on the French Revolution-in shaping it. (His draft of the Declaration of Rights.)

2. Rochambeau-peculiarities of his growth in Americanism.

3. Montmorency and others. Detection by Arthur Young of American ideas in the early Revolutionary ferment.

IV. INFLUENCE OF FRENCHMEN RETURNED FROM AMERICAN TRAVEL.

1. Chastellux. (Difference in spirit between that and the recent race of travellers in America.) Causes of Chastellux's great influence.

2. Brissot (de Warville).-(Clavière's preface.) Brissot the first open Republican in France.

3. Crèvecœur and others.

Second Lecture.

V. SUMMARY OF THE AMERICAN INFLUENCES.

1. Familiarity with the idea of Revolution.

2. Strength given to French ideas of Liberty-new meanings given to the word Liberty. Chénier's Ode-Fauchet's Sermon-Anacharsis de Clootz's tribute.

3. Practical shape given to ideas of Equality. Vagueness of these ideas previously. Remarks by Maine on this. (History of Ancient Law.) Proofs from Constitutions of 1791, '93, and '95.

4. Practical combination of Liberty and Equality into institutions, republican and democratic. Brissot's writings, Camille Desmoulin's pamphlet. Indirect testimony of Portier (in History of English Influences on French Revolution).

5. An ideal of Republican manhood. M. I. Chénier's apostrophe to Washington and Franklin. Sauvigny's Tragedy of "Vashington ou la Liberté du Nouveau Monde." Extracts to show its absurdities. Summary to show its real significance.

6. American influence on French Revolution a cause of just pride. That influence co-ordinate with the greatness of that Revolution. It ceases when the Revolution degenerates.

VI. BEARINGS OF THIS HISTORY ON AMERICAN AIMS TO-DAY.

1. How this American influence on European liberty was lost.

2. How alone it may be regained.

The last two points contain the moral of this special study, which was presented by Mr. President White to the American Historical Association at its Saratoga meeting, September 8, 1885, in the shape of a revised and enlarged syllabus, with special comments upon particular topics. Under the last two heads, as reported in the proceedings for 1885, page 12, Mr. White maintained that "American influence abroad was gained by fidelity to republican doctrines and honesty and integ'rity in the administration of public affairs; that it had now been largely lost by American misgovernment, especially in our great cities, so that American republican government is now pointed at in Europe rather with word of warning than with admiration. He insisted that if the proper influence of American institutions abroad is to be regained it can only be by reforming our system in various parts, and, above all, in maintaining and extending a better civil service through the country at large and a better system of administration in our great cities." Thus we see that Mr. White brought the special lessons of history to bear upon the concrete questions of American politics. It may also be proper to say, in this connection, that one of the most valuable studies in the history of American foreign relations, that by Mr. Rosenthal on "America and France" (New York, Henry Holt, 1882), was originally suggested by Mr. White and was the direct outgrowth of his own special line of investigation and collection.

EXAMINATION PAPER IN FRENCH HISTORY.

As an illustration of the kind of knowledge communicated by President White to his students in class lectures and required from them at the final examination, the following examination papers, taken from the annual register, 1871-'72, will have its interest for teachers:

1. What is Mignet's remark regarding the transition from the classic literature of the time of Louis XIV to the philosophic literature of the time of Louis XV ? 2. Give a general statement regarding Voltaire's life and influence.

3. Give some idea of the method of attacking old institutions in France taken by Montesquieu in the Persian Letters.

4. Give Rousseau's idea of representation in a republic as stated in the treatise on the Social Contract.

5. Name some of the principal encyclopædists. Why were they so called? What relation do they bear in the history of French thought to Voltaire and Rousseau ? 6. What was Jansenism?

7. Who was Maurepas? What were his ideas regarding the formation of the ministry?

8. State the main agencies through which the American Revolution influenced the French.

9. Up to what period of the French Revolution was this influence exercised and why did it cease?

10. What was the great preliminary question regarding the States General to be decided before the meeting?

11. What as soon as it had met?

12. Give Burke's objection to the way the States General was composed and give your own opinion.

EXAMINATION PAPER IN MODERN HISTORY.

(General.)

The questions in the following paper are evidently taken from the earlier or introductory course on general European history:

1. Give some account of Brunelleschi and his connection with the history of Florentine art.

2. Sketch the cause of the decline of Art after Michael Angelo and Raphael.

3. Give a brief account of the Colloquies of Erasmus. Name some of them. State the resemblances between Erasmus and Voltaire.

4. Give the main features of the struggle between the Obscurantists and Humanists, with an account of the part taken by Pfefferkorn.

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5. Give the dates of Charles V's accession to the thrones of Spain and Germany. What was his title as king of Spain?

6. Give a short account of the attempt made by Charles V on one side and Francis I on the other to secure the alliance of Henry VIII.

7. What was the League of Schmalkalden? What was the peace of Passau, and when?

8. State the effect of the war between Charles V and Joseph I on Protestantism in Germany.

9. Give the names of Loyola's principal associates in founding the Order of the Jesuits.

10. State the part taken by Lainez in the Council of Trent.

11. Give the date of the beginning of the Council of Trent. Where is Trent?

12. Describe the connection of Wallenstein with the Thirty Years' War.

13. What is Cardinal Richelieu's relation to the history of religious toleration ?2 14. What struggle was going on in England at the time of the Fronde? 15. Name the two religious orders founded by St. Vincent de Paul.

16. Name the chief political opponents in Europe of Louis XIV. What were Les Chambres de la Réunion?

17. Give the main points in the connection of John Law with the French Government.

PRIZE EXAMINATION IN HISTORY.

For the encouragement of meritorious students President White was accustomed each year to give prizes in the general courses (science, philosophy, and the arts) and in the various colleges (agriculture, chemistry, history, literature, mathematics, mechanic arts, and natural sci

1Among the most original and interesting of Mr. White's literary collections are "pamphlets, tracts, and ephemeral writings issued during the first period of the Obscurantist and Humanist struggles, at the close of the fifteenth and beginning of the sixteenth centuries, the nucleus of which was made by D. Simon, of Berlin." Mr. White also mentions in the preface to his syllabus "A collection of original materials bearing upon the latter part of the same struggle, mainly embracing contemporary histories, biographies, and pamphlets relating to Erasmus and the men and events of his time. The foundation of this collection was made by Mr. George P. Philes, of New York." A complete catalogue of Mr. White's library has been made by Mr. Burr. 2 The last five topics belong properly with the special course on French history, as shown in the reviewer's readjustment of the syllabus, but it is evident that Mr. White worked out his earlier lectures on French history as part of his general course and then added special courses on the greater states of continental Europe, including supplementary lectures on France.