following topics were considered in the class-room, three hours being devoted to each: (1) The political condition of England under the AngloSaxons. (2) The political and constitutional effects of the Norman conquest. (3) The immediate and remote effects of Magna Charta. (4) Legislative institutions in England before the establishment of the House of Commons as a separate branch of Parliament. (5) The development of representative institutions before the accession of Henry VII. (6) The relations of Monarch and Parliament during the reign of the Tudors. (7) Relations of Monarch and Parliament from the accession of James I. to the outbreak of the civil war. (8) From the outbreak of the war to the Restoration. (9) The constitutional significance of the revolution of 1688. (10) The struggles of Whigs and Tories in the eighteenth century. (11) The origin and development of cabinet government. (12) The reforms of 1832 and 1867.

TOPICS IN THE POLITICAL AND CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.

The Calendar for 1881-'82 states, page 77, that "the special object of this course is to give training and practice in the use of historical sources. No one is admitted to the class except graduates and such others as may have completed at least four courses in history, two of which must have been in the History of the United States. The subjects investigated by the class are the following: (1) The union of the colonies into one government. (2) The decline and fall of the Confederation. (3) The political doctrines of the early Federalists and anti-Federalists. (4) The early foreign policy of the Government. (5) New England Federalism and its attitude toward the General Government. (6) The acquisition of the Territories and their political organization and significance. (7) The financial history of the country from the beginning of the Revolutionary war to the close of the war of 1812. (8) The fiancial history of the country since the war of 1812. (9) The development of the slave power and of the anti-slavery movement to the adoption of the Missouri Compromise. (10) The development of the slave power and of the anti-slavery movement from the adoption of the Missouri Compromise to the outbreak of the civil war. (11) Nullification and secession from the election of President Jackson to the outbreak of the civil war.

A good idea of the nature of the materials employed in the preparation of one of these subjects may be derived from a pamphlet published by Professor Adams, entitled "Notes on the Constitutional History of England" (Ann Arbor: Sheehan & Co. 1879). Under the heads of such English constitutional topics as those presented above are grouped the various authorities, original and secondary, some of which each student was expected to consult. From the comprehensive nature of both the questions and the references, it was obviously expected that the student should prepare a somewhat general thesis rather than a special research from a novel point of view.

This method of instruction had, however, a decided value as a training process, besides being historically useful to students. It involved the comparison of historical authorities, the use of original sources, at least to some extent, and other important features of the seminary method, such as the critique of theses. This method at Ann Arbor was evidently the result of a development process, beginning at an early date. Professor Adams, in a letter to the writer of this report, says: "No very great change was made in the historical work until, in 1869, I introduced the seminary method, bringing it from Germany, and putting my classes into the work of investigation. So far as I know this was about the first, if not absolutely the first, establishment of what could be called an historical seminary in the United States. For a considerable number of years the work was still rather ele mentary. Within the last five or

six years, since we have been able to bring materials together for the use of students, the work, I think, has been highly creditable. You will allow me to add, perhaps, that since, within the last year, I have observed more largely, I have come to have an increasing respect for the work done at the University of Michigan. The people at the East generally have a very inadequate idea of the general excellence of that institution." (Extract from a letter written at Ithaca, February 9, 1886.) In an earlier communication to the present writer concerning seminary work in the University of Michigan, Professor C. K. Adams says: "This, of course, had to be evolved out of the old collegiate curriculum. When I took hold of my work here, in full charge of the department of history, in 1868, it occurred to me that something might be done to awaken further interest by introducing the German seminary methods. I had observed the work done in the seminaries in Berlin, Leipzig, and Bonn, and was convinced that better work could be done than up to that time had here been attempted. Accordingly the next year, in 1869, I got together a group of seniors, especially interested in historical studies, to see what I could do with them. The students were, of course, ill prepared for anything that could properly be called original work, and the resources of the library were quite inadequate. But we did the best we could, and the results on the whole were so satisfactory that I was encouraged to develop the system as time and opportunity seemed to suggest. It was not for some years after the time of which I am speaking that the course of study was made elective after the first year. As soon as the elective system came to be general I was able to 1 The adoption of the "seminary method" by other departments of instruction in the University of Michigan is indicated by the following extract from The Chronicle, October 30, 1880: "This method of instruction is especially suited to advanced students and higher literary work, and these courses are always highly popular and crowded to their utmost extent. Seminary work is now done in History, English literature, and partially in Greek. Last year President Angell introduced it into his advanced political economy class with great success. There are no very important changes to be noted in these courses for this year. Professor D'Ooge proposes to read one, and possibly two, Greek dramas in this way if his class desires."

In course

provide such preliminary work as I had strength to carry on. of time an assistant professor was furnished, and we have, in consequence, been able to add several courses not before given.

"Up to within the last year the resources of our library have not been such as to encourage us in going into an investigation of difficult and obscure questions. Nor, indeed, has that class of questions been the one I have supposed to be most useful to our students. Nearly all of them are undergraduates and a majority of them are to be lawyers. I have thought, therefore, that their minds required a different class of questions from such as would be most profitable, perhaps to a group of specialists intending to make the teaching of history their profession. In the first semester I gave the students a set of questions on English history; in the second, on American. The questions were, in the main, those in the last pages of my 'Manual.' The class taking the work varied in size from twenty to fifty. Of late I have made the conditions of admittance more stringent, and the number does not often go above 'twenty-five. I have three different ways of conducting the exercise. In all cases the subjects for special investigation have been assigned at the beginning of the year. In about six weeks we have the first paper, usually from half an hour to an hour in length. Then I have usually had a critique on this paper, prepared by one of the class into whose hands it had been puta week before it was to be read. I should have said that the class is always divided into groups of not more, in any case, than fifteen members and usually not more than ten. After the critique, each member is called upon to present the results of the studies on the question before us for that day. In this way the two hours of the session are taken up. I, of course, make such observations, comments, and criticisms as appear to be called for. In this way every member of the class prepares a paper and reads a critique every semester, and is expected to present the results of some study in addition on each of the other questions.

"Another way I have tried is to divide the questions into several parts and have each student devote a week to some particular phase of an individual question. This results in better work, but at the conclusion the knowledge of the students is more fragmentary and less satisfactory. Another method has been to have each student report at each meeting the result of his own studies on his own particular question. This I have found to be the most satisfactory, if the questions are properly chosen. In such a course, the meeting would not be devoted to a single question, as is usual in Germany, but to as many as happened to be in course of investigation.

"This latter is the course I pursued last year in my 'Political Seminary.' The class consisted of a group of six, four of them candidates for higher degrees. Our studies were very largely of municipal institutions in different times and different countries, but not exclusively so. The results were very satisfactory indeed, so far as can be judged by

in the students. I have been making efforts to ezon as practicable of municipal documents, and I kets into these for the study of such of our own cities

i ad ge with their reports.

Po cespicuous success last year was a paper on the 'History A perang Power of the President.' It is well worthy of publi... ..., à sa I think would be regarded as a genuine contribution to cur... cowledge. It covers some three hundred pages of MS., and is very carefully sustained by notes and citations of authorities. Another paper of excellence was on 'History of the Land Grants for Higher Education in the Northwest.' The author of this paper, a candidate for Ph. D., is now in Columbus, Ohio, looking at the State records of that State. He has already visited Lansing, Madison, and Chicago, and after doing' Ohio is to go to Indianapolis. His final thesis is to be on The Land Grants for Education in the Northwest,' more properly in that portion of the Northwest which is made up of the old Northwestern Territory. He has undertaken to trace the management in each State of all the land grants for education. I think he is doing the work thoroughly. So far as he has gone, he tells me he has examined all the general laws and specific acts in the States under investigation. I think he will not only bring together a large amount of new information, but will make very clear some mistakes that have been made. Another member devoted his time to a study of the financial history of Chicago; another to a comparison of the governments of Saint Louis, Chicago, Buffalo, and Boston. I have also been getting together the means for a similar study of cities of the Old World. I hope to push investigations in the history of education in the Northwest. The management of elementary or common schools, the growth of the high school, legislative interference with colleges and universities are all subjects which might be profitably investgated." (Extracts from a communication written in 1883.)

FIRST ORIGINAL WORK IN HISTORY AT MICHIGAN.1

From a careful reading of all this testimony, from a study of printed statements in the reports and calendars of the University of Michigan, and from inquiries made of graduates from that institution, the writer of this report is convinced that there were two stages in the development process of the historical seminary at Ann Arbor; the first stage, from 1869 to 1881-'82, was a training process, consisting of the investigation of general subjects already well known in historical literature; the second stage, from 1881-'82 to 1885, was a creative process, the first be

1It should be noted that Professor C. K. Adams very early set for his students a good example of original work in his own published lectures on "Democracy and Monarchy in France." New York, Henry Holt, 1874. This valuable work, the first fruit of his professorship in the University of Michigan, was almost immediately translated into German and was published at Stuttgart, 1875.

ginning of productive research in the shape of actual contributions to historical knowledge. Among the first evidences of original work done at Ann Arbor are the papers mentioned by Professor Adams in the last paragraph of the above communication. Two of these papers, prepared in 1882-'83, have since been printed by the American Historical Association in its first volume, 1885-'86, and are among the best fruits of University study in this country. Their titles are (1) History and Management of Federal Land Grants for Education in the Northwest Territory, by George W. Knight, Ph. D. (University of Michigan), now professor of history in the State University at Columbus, Ohio; (2) History of the Appointing Power of the President, by Lucy M. Salmon, A. M. (University of Michigan), Fellow in History at Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania, 1886-'87, and now Professor of History in Vassar College. The paper on The City Government of Chicago, by F. H. Hodder,. Ph. M. (University of Michigan), is to be published in the University studies at Baltimore. Other evidences of original work done in the University of Michigan in 1882-'83 may be found in the report of the Dean of the School of Political Science (Professor C. K. Adams) for that year. He mentions a study of the schools of Michigan during the Territorial period; and papers on the Management of the Public Debt during the War of the Rebellion; Taxation during the War of the Rebellion; Powers of the General Government over Commerce; Criminal Legislation in New England during the Colonial Period; Origin and Development of the Budget. These subjects indicate a new departure in historical and political work at the University of Michigan.

Among the chief causes of the development of this new and original spirit were (1) the specialization of undergraduate work; (2) the recognition of the university system as beginning midway in the four-years' course; (3) the organization of the School of Political Science, beginning with junior year; (4) the institution of the Political Science Association, embracing all the active workers in History and Political Science; (5) the reconstruction of the University library and the collection of materials for original work.

SPECIALIZATION OF UNDERGRADUATE WORK.

It was early recognized at Ann Arbor that the college curriculum, through the modifying influence of the elective system, actually represented two kinds of training, collegiate and university, or gymnastic and scientific. While the early part of the entire course was given up to a variety of required studies for the purpose of general culture, the latter part of the curriculum opened the way to specialization by offering elective courses in which the student might work out his natural bent. In point of age the average American student in a first-class college is further advanced at the end of his Sophomore year than the average.