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exotic plants, rare jewels, cabinets of pietra commessa," a unicorn's horn, a salamander and the like.

Interest in science was growing steadily, and John Ray, with his catalogues of flowers and plants, carried out valuable botanical investigations wherever he went. In the gardens, however, far more scientific skill was expended on the elaborate and eccentric water-works, so characteristic of the taste of the day, than on the trees and flowers. Among the best were those of the Ducal Villa at Pratolino, the Villa Aldobrandini at Frascati, and the Villa Doria at Genoa. Mention is made of the "wettingsports," which must have tried some visitors not a little. At the Villa Chigi, says Misson, they" never fail to sprinkle the curious,' unless the gardener has received a fee. At Pratolino, a visitor sitting on a wetting-stool, receives a great spout of water full in the face. Here there were water-organs, giuochi d'acqua, such as Pan striking up a melodious tune upon his mouth-organ at the sight of his mistress; water mills of all kinds and a grotto of Galatea who comes out of a dore in a sea chariot with two nymphs and sayleth a while upon the water, and so returns again in at the same dore." At Villa d'Este was a noble aviary of artificial birds which sang till an owl appeared, "on which they suddenly change their notes." Most villas had aviaries, the largest being in the Palazzo Doria at Genoa, while the Great Duke of Tuscany had a regular menagerie of wild beasts.

It is interesting to find differences between Italian and English food which we note to-day already in existence. Coryat complains that "most of their best meats which come to table are sprinkled with cheese, which I love so well as the Welshmen doe, whereby I was oftentimes constrained to leave my share of much good fare, to my great discontent." Like other strangers "commorant in Italy" he brought home the habit of using a fork, for which he was "quipped" in England by being called "furcifer," "for using a forke at feeding, but for no other cause." Ray talks of paste "made with strings like pack-thread or thongs of white leather (which, if greater, they call Maccaroni; if lesser, Vermicelli) they cut in pieces and put into their pots as we do oat-meal to make their minestra or broth." Lassels gives a long account of a dinner, in the course of which he tells us that they never present you with salt or braines of any fowl, leaste they may seeme to reproach unto you want of wit," and that the same portion of

bird was scrupulously given to each guest for fear of causing offence.

Lassels is careful to record the names of the Academies, which, with their amazing futilities, were such a feature of Italian life at this time in all the chief towns. He bids Englishmen visit them, that they may see "how far the Italians excel us in passing their time well . . . making of orations and verses instead of drinking of ale and smoking of tobacco." Evelyn was invited to the Umoristi in Rome; and Milton, who was made free of the various Florentine academies, notably the Svogliati, held them to be " of most praiseworthy effect, both for the cultivation of polite letters and the keeping up of friendships."

Naturally these writers tell us a good deal about Italian manners and customs, and discuss Italian character. Howell actually finds the people of Lombardy in some parts very like the Welsh, "for divers of these have a cast of countenance, and a nearer resemblance with our nation than I ever saw yet." Ray says the Italians "are of a middle temper between the fastuous gravity of the Spaniard and the unquiet levity of the French, agreeing very well with the English, as the Scots are observed to do with the French and the Spaniards with the Irish." elaborate summing up is worth quoting :

Lassels'

They have strong fancies, and yet solid judgment; a happy temper which makes them great Preachers, Politicians and Ingeniers; but withall they are a little too melancholy and gealous. They are great lovers of their brethren and neare kindred, as the first friends they are acquainted with all by nature. . . . They are sparing in dyet, both for to live in health and to live handsomely: making their bellyes contribute to the maintenance of their backs, and their kitchen to help to the keeping of their stable. They are ambitious still of honours, remembering they are the successors of the masters of the world, the old Romans and to put the world in mind of it, they take to themselves the glorious names of Camillo, Scipione and the like. They are jealous of their women and hard to placate. Yet they will not meet revenge in the face; they will rather hire it than take it.

As for their manners, they are most commendable. They have taught them in their bookes, they practise them in their actions, and they have spread them abroad over all Europe, which owes its civility unto the Italians, as well as its religion. . . . As for their apparel, or dresse, it's commonly black and modest. They value no bravery, but that of coache and horses and staffiers, and they sacrifize a world of little satisfactions to that main one of being able to keepe a coache.

Theres not a man of them, but he knowes how to entertain men of all conditions; that is, how farre to meet, how to place them, how stile and treat them, how to reconduct them, and how farr. They are good for Nunciatures, Embasies, State employments, being men of good behaviour, lookes, temper, and discretion. They are great lovers of musick, meddales, statues and pictures, as things which either divert their melancholy or humour it.

This insistence on Italian melancholy is rather surprising. Probably it was the fashion to ape Spanish gravity, at a time when Spain gave the law in so many other things.

"In fine (continues Lassels) of all the nations I have seen, I know none that lives, clothes, eats, drinks, and speaks so much with reason as the Italians do."

L. COLLISON-MORLEY

WHA

NATIONAL FINANCE

HATEVER may be the causes of the industrial crisis now facing the country, there can be no dispute as to its gravity Of all our industries none is perhaps of such fundamental importance as the coal industry. For many decades Great Britain has very largely depended on the export of coal as one of the most important means of paying for the food that she must import to maintain a population far in excess of the agricultural capacity of the kingdom. Not only in past years has the price paid for that coal gone a long way towards meeting the cost of the imported food, but in addition the exported coal has served a very valuable purpose by providing a profitable form of ballast for outgoing ships. Apart from coal, the goods that Great Britain exports are in the main manufactured goods, weighing little and occupying little cargo space in proportion to their financial value. On the other hand, the greater part of the goods we import consists of comparatively heavy foodstuffs and raw materials. Consequently if we had no coal to export our outgoing ships would have so little to carry in comparison with incoming ships that they would have to load up with ballast in the shape of clay or sand. This would mean an additional cost to shipowners, which would have ultimately to be paid for by higher freights on exported goods. To this extent the export of coal acts as a direct aid to the export of British manufactured goods. There is thus a double loss involved in the reduction of our coal exports.

There is the further consideration of the importance of cheap coal to our domestic industries. In many of our heavier iron and steel industries the cost of fuel is one of the most important items in the cost of production; as the price of coal goes up, many of these industries find it extremely difficult to carry on. To a lesser extent the same consideration applies to all manufacturing industries dependent on steam power. It also obviously affects the cost of working the railways. In addition the carriage of coal contributes an important item to railway receipts. There is no exaggeration in saying that the commercial triumphs which Great Britain achieved in the nineteenth century were very largely due

to the fact that she had at her command a practically unlimited supply of cheap coal. That splendid asset is disappearing. Our recent exports of coal-except for the boom year when the French were in occupation of the Ruhr-are considerably less than in the years before the war. Many mines have been closed down, and tens of thousands of miners are drawing the dole.

Apart from coal, the industries that are now most depressed are the heavy iron and steel industries, the shipbuilding industries, and also shipping itself. In all of these the situation is very serious. Works are being closed, ships are lying idle. The great cotton industry of Lancashire is also in a very unsatisfactory condition. Many of the old established markets for Lancashire cotton goods are now being successfully invaded by Italian or Japanese competitors.

There are many causes which contribute to this grave industrial

situation in Great Britain. One over which we have no control is the increasing industrial capacity of other countries. A century ago, England and Scotland stood almost alone in the world in their effective use of steam machinery for manufacturing purposes. That virtual monopoly has now disappeared. The rest of the world has learnt all that we were able to teach, and in some respects has outrun the lessons of the teacher. In particular, Germany and the United States, who a hundred years ago were both agricultural countries, have now become complete masters of machine industry, and in some respects it is to them that we now have to look for lessons, not they to us. The manufacturers of the United States have succeeded in so improving the organization of industry and the methods of production, that they are able to sell their goods cheaply while paying astoundingly high wages to their workpeople. On the other side of the picture, Italy and Japan are increasing their competitive power in the markets of the world with the aid of cheap labour.

Over this increased industrial capacity of foreign countries of necessity we have no control. There are other factors which we ought to be able to influence. One of the principal difficulties which nearly all our industries now have to face when seeking markets abroad is the high cost of labour at home. In the case of coal the cost of labour represents over seventy per cent. of the total cost of production; in some industries that proportion may be less; but in all, labour is the principal element of cost. The cost