The rough breathing has a corresponding letter in the Roman h, which is placed before the vowel, but after the r; as "Extwo, Hector, Péa, Rhea. In writing Rhea, instead of Hrea, the Romans committed the same inaccuracy that we have committed in writing while, instead of hwile (pronounced hoo-ile); since, in both cases, the breathing introduces the word. $18. In the English method of pronouncing Greek, we give to the rough breathing the force of our h, and disregard the smooth breathing; thus ogos is pronounced horos, but ogos, oros. The modern Greeks disregard both the rough and the smooth breathing. CHAPTER III. THE ACCENTS. § 19. Over every word, with a few exceptions, is found a mark to denote the ancient accent. Α sharp tone of the voice was denoted by the mark (), called the ACUTE ACCENT (acutus accentus, sharp tone). But if this tone belonged to the last syllable of a word not closing a sentence, it lost a part of its sharpness, and then received this mark (), called the GRAVE ACCENT (gravis, heavy). If upon the same syllable the voice both rose to this sharp tone, and then fell again to its common tone, this rise and fall was denoted by the mark (~) or (^), called the CIRCUMFLEX ACCENT (circumflexus, bent round). See § 47. The last mark seems to have been formed from the other two (^). $20. In the English method of pronouncing Greek, these marks are not regarded, and the ictus (Lat. stroke, blow,) or stress of the voice (§ 47), is placed according to the following rule: In dissyllables, the penult (§ 39) always takes the ictus. In polysyllables, the penult, if long, takes the ictus; but, if short, throws it upon the antepenult. In the modern Greek method, the place of the ictus is uniformly determined by the written accent. Thus καλῷ, ἄν θρωπος, ἀνθρώπῳ, ἠχόος, are pronounced by the English method ka-lo, an-thro'-pos, an-thro'-po, e'-cho-os; by the modern Greek method, ka-lo', an'-thro-pos, an-thro'-po, e-cho-os. A second accent, arising from an enclitic, gives, in the modern Greek method, a secondary ictus, if the proper accent of the word is upon the antepenult ; but, otherwise, is disregarded; as ävdewrós iσri• owμá μos. CHAPTER IV. THE MARKS OF PUNCTUATION, AND OTHER CHARACTERS. § 21. Of the Greek marks of punctuation (punctum, point), the COMMA (xóuua, from xónτo, to cut off,) and the PERIOD (regíodos, circuit, because the sentence has now run through its whole circuit,) are the same as in English; (,) and (.). The COLON (xãλov, limb, member,) is a point at the top (•). The NOTE OF INTERROGATION (nota interrogationis, mark of a question,) has the form of our semicolon (;), i. e. of our note of interrogation (?) inverted; as tí λéysis; what are you saying? A few recent editors have adopted, in the printing of Greek, our note of exclamation (/). §22. CORONIS and APOSTROPHE. The mark (), which at the beginning of a word is the smooth breathing, if placed over the middle of a word, shows that two words have been combined into one, and is called the coronis (xogavís, crooked mark); as ταὐτά for τὰ αὐτά· while at the end, it shows that a vowel has been cut off, and is called the apostrophe (ἀπόστροφος, from ἀποστρέφω, to turn away, to remove); as ἀλλ ̓ ἐγώ for ἀλλὰ ἐγώ. HYPODIASTOLE. A mark like a comma (,) is usually placed after some forms of the article and of the relative pronoun, when followed by the enclitic T or Ti; as o,tε, tó,Tε, o,ti, to distinguish them from the particles orε, TÓTε, ot. This mark is called the hypodiastole (vлodiaoroký, separation beneath), or the diastole (Saoroký, separation). Some editors more wisely omit it, and merely separate the enclitic by a space. The DIERESIS (dıαiçɛσıç, division,) is placed, as in English, over the latter of two vowels, to show that they do not form a diphthong; as is, pronounced o-is, ñçaïç. $23. The HYPHEN (vpiv, mark of union,) is employed as in English; thus lέ-yes. A PARENTHESIS (Tagέveois, insertion,) is sometimes marked as in English; thus (pv); sometimes by two dashes; thus φεῦ BRACKETS (from the French braquer, to bend,) are used by editors to inclose words which do not properly belong to the text; as [ro]. MARKS OF QUANTITY. We sometimes place the mark (-) over a letter or syllable, to show that it is long; (), to show that it is short; () or (~~), to show that it may be either long or short ; as φιλόν, ὕδατι, πλημμυρις. See § 47. BOOK II. ORTHOEPY. Tawoons príλiyua. Eschylus, Eumenides. "O wondrous power of modulated sound! INTRODUCTION. 24. The SOUNDS which constitute the material of language, are made by the breath, in its passage from the lungs to the open air. The breath first ascends through the windpipe to a narrow opening at its top, called the glottis (yλwrtís, from yhatta, tongue). This opening, we have the power, within certain limits, of enlarging or diminishing, at our pleasure. In ordinary breathing, the glottis is fully open, and the breath passes gently and noiselessly through it. But, if we contract the aperture, and send the breath through it with force, sound is then produced, upon the same principle as in wind instruments; and, the smaller we make the aperture, the sharper is the sound. § 25. But our power of modifying the sound does not stop here. The breath passes from the 1 glottis not into the open air, but into an irregularly shaped chamber or cavern, if we may use the term, which can be enlarged, or contracted, or changed in its form, by the movement of the jaws, or the action of the tongue and lips. The modifications of sound thus produced, differ from each other, not as the different notes of the same instrument, but rather as the notes of different instruments. These modifications are called VOWELS (Vocalis, vocal, from vox, voice). $26. These modifications vary, not only in different languages and in different dialects of the same language, but in the same dialect at different times, and even at the same time as spoken by different individuals. Indeed, no precise description can be given of them, nor can any limit be assigned to their number. They are as numerous as the different degrees to which the mouth can be opened, and the different degrees and modes in which the tongue and lips can contract and vary the passage-way of the voice. Hence arises the difficulty of learning the vowel sounds of any other than our native language, and the impossibility of determining with precision what these sounds were, in a language which is no longer spoken. Even in living languages, they are in a continual process of change. 27. It is obviously impossible to assign a distinct character to each of these modifications. We must either neglect marking them at all, as some of the Eastern nations have done, or we must divide them into a convenient number of classes, and content ourselves with assigning a character to each class. Most nations have adopted the latter course. It is but natural that they should differ in the number of their classes. The most common number has been five, marked in the Roman alphabet by the letters A (sounded as in father, wall, fan, not as in hate), E (as in they, then, not as in mete), 1 (as in machine, pin, not as in pine), O (as in note, not), U (as in tube, bull); and commonly called the vowels A, E, I, O, and U. In these we observe three degrees of openness. 1. In A, organs of speech (ögyavov, instrument,) are thrown fully open, or nearly so, and the voice comes forth with its greatest freedom. 2. In E and O, the passage is somewhat contracted; the |