There was also expended for kindergärten 20,455.645 yen, and 19,658.867 yen for other items, which makes a total of 8,675,140.109 yen, and the rate per pupil is 2.422 yen. Compared with the previous year, there is a general increase in all items for elementary schools, a decrease in the amount for secondary and special schools, while in normal and miscellaneous schools an increase has taken place in the amounts disbursed and in the average amount for each school, and a decrease in the average amount for each pupil.

SUPERVISION AND ADMINISTRATION.

State control. The governmental supervision of education is under the department of education, which is one of ten departments. The minister of education has control over all affairs connected with education throughout the country, and with respect to educational affairs he superintends the governors of Fus and Kens. There are senior and junior vice-ministers, who assist him in the discharge of his duties; secretaries, who manage special business intrusted to them, under the orders of the minister, and subordinate officials who transact whatever business is assigned to each of them respectively.

The minister of education prepares drafts in regard to the establishment and abrogation of such laws and regulations as are connected with education, and submits them to the Emperor for approval. He also signs such laws and regulations and is responsible for them. The minister has the right of nullifying any educational regulations made by the governors of Fus and Kens if such regulations do not meet with his approval. In order to carry on the business of the department the following bureaus are organized within the department, as is stated in the "General Outlines of Education in Japan in 1884," viz:

Bureau of special school affairs (to conduct business concerning higher and special education); bureau of general school affairs (to conduct business concerning general education); bureau of compilation' (to conduct the business of writing and compiling books necessary to education); bureau of finance (to conduct financial business, constructions, and repairs); bureau of general business (to conduct business connected with official regulations for the officers of the several bureaus of the department, the schools under its control, and miscellaneous business not undertaken by the other bureaus); bureau of report (to conduct business concerning reports, statistics, etc., of education); office of private secretaries (belonging to the private office of the minister and vice-ministers, having charge of business concern

1A reorganization of these bureaus seems to take place from year to year, but the business transacted does not seem to vary greatly from what is stated above. In 1890 the bureau of compilation was abolished and a division was created in the bureau of general supervision for the transaction of business. Again, in 1891, another reorganization took place, all bureaus of the department of education being abolished. The department was then reorganized with the minister's cabinet, bureau of general school affairs, bureau of compilation, and bureau of treasury. A board of inspection was also established in the department. These various reorganizations do not seem to have materially affected the general business mentioned above, hence the changes are simply indicated in form of note.

ing appointment, dismissal, promotion, etc., of officers under the control of the minister); documentary examiner's office (to examine the drafts of laws and regulations); office of prize affairs (to conduct business connected with the pensions of teachers and with educational awards); institute of music (to conduct business concerning inquiries as to singing and general improvement in music); office of reports for the Government Gazette (to conduct the business of collecting and arranging, in proper order, the laws, regulations, writings, reports, etc., necessary to education which are to be published in Kuwanto (the Government Gazette). The chief of each of these bureaus has a secretary, and in some cases an assistant chief is also appointed.

The minister and vice-minister visit from time to time the schools of Fu and Ken, or send subordinate officials to every place to inspect the actual condition of education. Those officers afterwards present reports to the minister concerning the results of their inspection. The governors are bound to present every year detailed reports of education within their jurisdiction; and the heads of the school under the control of the Department are also obliged to present reports on the results of instruction. The minister then has all these reports arranged in proper order, and after making his own remarks, and adding statistics, presents them to the Emperor under the title of the Annual Report of the Department of Education. This report is afterwards made public to show the condition of local education.

The minister of education has organized an academy in order to inquire into matters concerning education and to discuss subjects connected with the science and art of education. The members were chosen by the minister himself, and the remainder have been elected from time to time by the vote of the members, their tenure of office being one year. As a rule, they meet once a month in the department of education. The directors, librarians, curators, teachers, etc., of the schools, libraries, museums, etc., under the control of the department of education are appointed and dismissed in different ways, according to their rank, those of the class of Sônin by the vice-minister of education and those of the class of Hannin by the minister himself.

Since the presentation of the above regulations for State supervision of educational affairs there have been minor changes, particularly in 1885 and 1886, but in the main the officers are the same. The minister of education1 is now called the minister of state for education, and there is one vice-minister of state for education in place of the senior and junior men of previous years, but these modifications do not materially modify the above statement.

Local control is, as heretofore stated, not uniform. Sometimes there are committees of inspection appointed from among the school officers, or the inspections are conducted by officials of Gun or Ku. In sixteen Kens supervising teachers are appointed for the purpose of im*proving educational systems. In other Kens teachers of normal schools exercise such supervision. In general, it may be stated that all the

1 Although educational affairs throughout the Empire are under the control of the minister of state for education there are schools for the teaching of special subjects under the control of and maintained by other governmental departments, i. e., the department of the imperial household; the military and naval departments; the department of justice; the department of agriculture and commerce; the department of communications, and the Hokkaido administration board. The high standard which these institutions have attained will be brought out on the following pages.

local authorities attend to the educational administration in their respective districts.

In 1884 the local regulations were as follows, and the changes since have not materially modified the provisions:

There are school committees specially organized in wards or villages to conduct the various matters concerning the school attendance of children, the establishment and maintenance of shools, etc., under the supervision of the governor. They are nominated in each school district by the people of that district, and then the gov ernor selects a certain number of those thus nominated. The tenure of office of the school committees is not less than four years, and is fixed according to circumstances. Their number, salaries, etc., are determined by the ward or village assembly with the approval of the governor. In case any committeeman is incapable of discharging his duty, after he has been appointed, the governor causes another nomination to be made.

Persons qualified to serve as members of school committees, or to take part in the appointment of the same, must be males upwards of 20 years of age, possessing either lands or buildings, and having both legal and actual residence within their respective school districts. The Kochô takes part in the business of school committees in his own school district.

When several wards or villages unite together and establish such schools as professional schools, middle schools, etc., independent of the limit of the school district in which elementary schools are organized, they nominate special school committees within the limit of the school district thus formed. The regulations as to the mode of nomination, appointment, functions, etc., are the same as those adopted in the case of school committees of school districts. Regular educational inspection takes place annually, and there are special educational tours made by officials designated for that purpose.

This is, as far as can be ascertained, the general method of procedure in the diverse districts on the many islands comprising the Empire of Japan. From year to year there are variations of the same, but to date there seem to be no permanent changes materially affecting the above statement.

TEACHERS.

Preparation. The law appertaining to education is very explicit in regard to the preparation of teachers. According to the various articles therein contained normal schools for the training of teachers for elementary schools are to be established in each Fu or Ken; they are to grant certificates to their own and other students who, upon examination, are found to be duly qualified; teachers' of either sex are to be over 18 years of age; all teachers of elementary schools must possess a certificate from a Government or normal school. The first normal school dates from 1872 and was founded with senior and junior classes in Tokio. A foreign teacher was employed who taught the seniors as if they were pupils of an elementary school, and they, while thus learning methods

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1 No persons guilty of immoral conduct shall be employed as teachers.

2 It shall be lawful for any person to be employed as a teacher within the jurisdiction of Fu or Ken without a certificate from a normal school, provided he possesses a teacher's license granted by the governor of said Fu or Ken.

of teaching, in turn gave instruction to the junior pupils. Soon after a practice school was established, so that the pupils might be better grounded in methods, and in 1873 normal school courses with higher and lower grades were instituted. So great was the call for women teachers that, in 1874, a normal school for women was established in Tokio, which school was merged into the Tokio Normal School in 1885. Admission to normal schools of persons above seventeen years of age was based upon good moral character, sound health and constitution, and attainments equivalent to those of graduates of the second division of elementary schools. The course of study at this early date was modified from year to year, but general regulations governing the normal schools were first issued in 1883. The instruction was based upon "the fundamental principles of human relations, such as loyalty and filial conduct." The number of pupils to be admitted was fixed at "one for every 1,500 of school population within each jurisdiction." Pupil's expenses "were as a rule to be paid out of the school allowance, with a provision that the same expenses might be granted as loans, or some of the pupils might be admitted at their own expense, according to the discretion of the highest officials of city or province. From 1883 on, steady progress was observed in the work of normal-school training. This was due in part to methods introduced by students who had been sent to foreign countries to investigate normal-school matters, and who had returned and engaged in the work of education, In 1886, according to a decree promulgated by the Emperor, normal schools were divided into higher and lower grade normal schools. The higher normal was to be established at Tokio under the direct control of the minister of state for education, and in each Fu and Ken there was to be a lower grade normal school. The object of the higher normal is to train directors and instructors of lower grade normal schools; that of the lower grade normal is to train the directors and instructors of public elementary schools. All expenses of pupils are to be paid out of the school allowance. Included in the course of study in normal schools is military drill, for it is conceded that "the proper aim of normal training is to develop in pupils the characteristics of obedience, sympathy, and dignity." The four years' course of study in the lower grade normal school includes ethics, science of education, Japanese language, Chinese literature, English language, mathematics, bookkeeping, geography, history, natural science, physics, chemistry, agriculture, handiwork, household management, writing, drawing, music, and gymnastics. The male pupils are taught agriculture, handiwork, and military exercises; the women learn domestic economy. The regulations for admission to the lower grade normals require a completion of the higher elementary course, legal residence within Fu or Ken, and that the pupil be between 17 and 20 years of age, if men, and between 15 and 20, if women. Graduates of lower grade normals are under obligation to serve as teachers during a ten years' period.

The higher normal school is divided into three sections, i. e. (1) physical and chemical science; (2), natural science; (3), literature. The first includes the science of education, ethics, English language, mathematics, physics, chemistry, handiwork and drawing, music, and gymnastics; the second (in addition to the science of education, ethics, the English language, drawing, music, and gymnastics) has organic chemistry, mineralogy, geology, botany, zoölogy, physiology, and agriculture; the third (in addition to the science of education, ethics, music and gymnastics, and English language) includes Japanese language and Chinese literature, geography, history, political economy, and philosophy. The course of study in the woman's division varies somewhat from the above, but includes housekeeping and household management. Admission to the higher normal is from the normal schools of Fu or Ken, or from among persons of literary and other qualifications when nominated by the governing officials of Fu or Ken, and selected by the director of the higher normal school. The male graduates are to serve for ten years after graduation, three years of which must be in such schools, and at such salaries as the department of education may decide. The women are under obligation to service in schools for five years after graduation, for the first two years in any schools to which the department of education may assign them.

Licensing and appointment.-Candidates for the position of teacher in elementary schools must be upward of eighteen years of age, and must possess either the certificate of a normal school, a teacher's license, or certificate of qualification in a certain subject given by the governor of Fu or Ken. The length of time for which certificates are granted is mentioned above. The normal certificate is good for the whole country; the license given by the governor is only available within the jurisdiction whence given. The teacher's license is given by the gov ernor after examination concerning the candidate's knowledge, in accordance with the directions for granting teacher's licenses1 issued

1

Regulations (1886) are as follows: There are general and local licenses; the former granted by the minister and valid throughout the country; the latter by the governor of Fu or Ken, and valid within the jurisdiction whence issued. General licenses are valid for life; local, for life or a stated period, i. e., five years, with privilege of renewal if the person be competent. General licenses are granted to graduates of the higher normal, or to those who, having possessed local licenses, and having served five years or upward, are eminent both in attainments and teaching, Local licenses are granted to graduates of the lower grade normal schools, or to those who have passed the examinations for elementary-school teachers. The examinations for elementary-school teachers are to be conducted in accordance with the "subjects of study and the standard to be attained in the lower grade normal schools." Licenses are not to be granted to (1) those who have been subject to imprisonment or who have committed a crime against public morality; (2) who have been subject to punishment for gambling; (3) who have been adjudged bankrupt and not discharged their obligations; (4) guilty of minor debts, drunkenness, or violence; (5) subject to penal servitude, imprisonment, or solitary confinement, according to law. The regulations require that fees shall be paid by those who undergo examinations, and by those who receive licenses for elementary-school teachers.