have the general charge of the institution. The pedagogical council (composed of the director of the boys' gymnasia or Real school, the directress and all other officials of the girls' school)' chooses the teachers, both the men and women, and it is left to the curators of the school districts to confirm them in their functions. In the three classes of the progymnasia and the three lower classes of the gymnasia the instruction is given by women teachers.

A large number of girls are trained in the state institutions, of which there are 8 at St. Petersburg and 6 at Moscow, and 20 in different provincial towns. Admission to these is dependent upon the rank and official position of the father: In one the highest aristocracy are admitted, and so on down to the daughters of the clergy and of citizens. The duration of the studies is six years. Other establishments for young women, also under the supervision of the minister of public instruction, are open to all young girls, irrespective of rank. They are, with the exception of certain modifications in the instruction, completely parallel to the establishment for boys.

For the training of teachers permission was given by the authorities in 1871 to establish a class of training schools, so that persons desiring to adopt that profession might be properly instructed in their duties. These schools are divided into institutes and pedagogical seminaries. The former train teachers for the higher, the latter for the lower elementary grades. There are also pedagogical training schools for teachers of infant and maternal schools, which will be described under appropriate headings.

The universities are of comparatively recent origin, dating from the 18th and 19th centuries. Their first real vitality was due to Alexander I (1801-1825), who greatly favored the establishment of institutions for higher study, and, indeed, himself founded the universities of Kharkof, Kazan, and St. Petersburg, and restored those of Dorpat and Helsingfors, all of which have a high standard of instruction. The complete university is composed of four faculties: History and philosophy, physi cal sciences and mathematics, law, and medicine. All the universities do not possess the full faculties. The universities of St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kief, Kharkof, Odessa, and Kazan rank about equally in this matter. Dorpat has been under German influence, but is now being Russianized. Helsingfors has a special constitution of its own. Varsovia is a Catholic center, and at Tomsk, in northwestern Siberia, an in

1 Students of the Jewish religion are admitted to the Imperial University at Tomsk (circular of rector of the university of June 3, 1892) in such a proportion that their numbers do not exceed 5 per cent of the students. Preference is given to those who have completed a gymnasial course in Siberia. In the University of St. Petersburg only 3 per cent of the students are to be Jews, by regulation made in the year 1890-91. In the schools throughout the Empire 10 per cent of the pupils may be Jews, or 5 per cent where they are not considered as permanent settlers. In large cities like Moscow and St. Petersburg about 3 per cent are admitted to the public schools. The Jewish people have, however, their own schools, wherein their children show themselves to be studious and intelligent.

cipient university, which now consists only of the faculty of medicine,' was opened in 1889.

Classed under higher instruction are a few lyceums, which are a grade above the gymnasia but of a lesser degree than the university. Information in regard to these schools is presented under the heading. "Courses of study." Special schools, most of which are establishments of the State, such as polytechnic schools, forestry schools, schools for veterinary surgery, for the study of mining, bridge and road making, serve to complete a school system which leaves no grade of education untouched. Military schools also have an important part in the school system. The pupils enter at 10 years of age into one of the one hundred or more military schools in the Empire, follow a seven years' course, which is free of charge to most of them, and are then ready to enter for a two or three years' course in one of the six special military schools of higher grade. The naval cadet school, dating from Peter the Great's reign, and the naval academy educate for the naval service in a six years' course in the former and a two years' course in the latter school.

STATE CONTROL.

The Czar, as stated above, has the supreme control of all legislative, executive, and judicial matters throughout the Empire, consequently he is the highest school authority. But acting as his aids are many officials who have more direct charge of educational affairs, among them the ministers, all of whom communicate directly with their sovereign, so that the control of the various grades is vested in the different ministers of the Government.

The minister of public instruction with a deputy, who takes his place in case of absence, and his scientific council, composed of well known specialists, form the highest legislative and administrative body for educational purposes. The scientific council has as one of its duties the selection of text-books, the list of which is submitted to the minister annually, and, if approved by him, is published.

The greater proportion of educational institutions are under the direction of the ministry of public instruction, but the Holy Synod has a number of people's schools of both elementary and secondary grades, which have a separate organization from the Government schools. Then there is a complete system of schools attached to the ministry of war. This class of schools includes military academies; schools of civil engineering and artillery; cadet schools and military gymnasia for the sons of officers; schools for engineers and subofficers who voluntarily enter the service and aspire to attain the rank of officer; and topographical and pyrotechnic schools. These schools are only accessible to the sons of officers and to young officers. Controlled by the same ministry are schools to form the corps of pages to which are admitted the sons and

1At date of going to press information is obtained that the faculty of science was opened in the winter of 1892-93.

grandsons of generals only; the school of law, with a seven years' course exclusive of the preparatory classes; and the imperial lyceums of St. Petersburg and Moscow. In the first of these establishments persons are trained to be higher officers; in the second for the magistracy; in the others as administrative officers. These schools are reserved for the sons of high civil and military authorities or of noble families. Connected with the ministry of the navy and the ministry of public works and railways are many technical schools of both elementary and secondary grade. Such schools are divided into those for the nobility and for persons who are not of noble extraction. The ministry of the imperial house has charge of schools which serve to train young persons for the dramatic profession. Both special and general instruction is given to this class of students, the study of three languages, dancing, dramatic art, and singing being included in the course. Still other ministers have charge of higher and secondary schools for the children of persons employed in such ministries. The minister of public instruction is represented in each of the educational districts by a curator, who is appointed by the minister. Subordinated to the curator are the inspectors of provinces and districts designated by himself. The jurisdiction of these functionaries extends over all branches of instruction, even to the universities, and through these officials the Czar is advised as to the educational movements transpiring throughout his domains.

LOCAL CONTROL.

In each of the provinces where there is a provincial assembly or zemstvo the schools are under the control of a school council, presided over by the archbishop, of which the governor of the province is member ex officio. These councils are independent of the ministry and have no regular communication with the department except when complaints are made or illegal acts done. In the provinces or governments where there is no zemstvo there are neither school councils nor inspectors, but the directors of the gymnasia have, at least nominally, the surveillance of elementary grades. The Holy Synod has direct control of the parochial schools organized by law of July 13, 1884, all of which depend upon the clergy. The administrative officers of the different classes of schools will be found under the heading, "Supervision and administration." The Grand Duchy of Finland has its own special school administration (see Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1888-'89, vol. 1, pp. 222-235).

MAINTENANCE.

Russia's rule is that of absolutism, and yet the peasant class, even when its members were serfs, had a sort of republican organization. Individual rights are a new thing, however, and have only existed since the abolition of serfdom. Each commune has its own form of organization; and when a school is to be created the members of the commune assemble together as a whole and vote the funds for such purpose; that is, such a vote is taken in case there is no territorial assembly or zemstvo.

The development of elementary education is slow, and the governmental authorities at St. Petersburg only participate in a most limited degree in the formation and maintenance of schools, as they lean voluntarily upon the zemstvos and upon the municipalities and private associations scattered throughout the Empire, yet the school system has marked uniformity throughout the length and breadth of Russia, and the organization is as complete as though all educational institutions were founded and supported by the Government. As to any modifications of this general rule it may be observed that, according to an imperial decree of May 25, 1874, which sums up all previous decrees, elementary schools are to be maintained by the State (in a limited degree) by the zemstvos, by the communes, and by private associations. When the zemstvo decides to create a school, however, it expects a subsidy from the State and also pecuniary aid from the commune, both of which it usually obtains (in 1890 the zemstvos maintained no less than 22,000 schools), but the main cost of village schools is paid by the zemstvos; still, in the school district of Odessa the communes expended two and one-half times as much as the zemstvo. The Holy Synod supports a number of schools of both elementary and secondary grades, which are open to children of all religions, the Orthodox-Catholics receiving free instruction, those of other faiths paying school fees.

Secondary schools are maintained by the State, which contributes 52 per cent of the aggregate expenditure of the gymnasia, progymnasia, and technical schools; the remainder of the amount needed to maintain such schools being made up by fees (about 30 per cent) and by donations from the zemstvos and municipalities. Cossack schools, of all grades, for boys and girls are maintained by the separate voiskos, which, however, maintain a number of their pupils in the governmental schools. The State maintains institutes of a secondary character for girls. These are the so-called Empress Marie institutions, the expenditures of which are paid by the ministry of finance. The universities are maintained in part by the State and in part through the funds accruing from tuition fees, donations, etc.

Summarizing in a few words, it may be stated that the Government at St. Petersburg is thoroughly in accord with the local authorities in the matter of establishment, control, and maintenance of schools throughout the various divisions of Russia. While much is left to local authorities, yet is it noticeable that all grades of schools are in a measure subordinated to regulations emanating from the seat of Government, the Czar and his ministers being fully cognizant of all branches of the public service, and the divers school officials being either in direct or indirect communication with the central authorities.

STATISTICS.

The total number of pupils in the schools of the Empire, exclusive of Finland, was estimated, in 1887-88, to be 2,472,627-boys, 1,944,057; girls, 527,570. These figures are not complete, but it seems that only

about 2 per cent of the aggregate population is in school, and, in 1888, only 20 per cent of the recruits could read and write. In European Russia there is one primary school for each 2,500 inhabitants, and in Siberia one for each 3,345 inhabitants. The statistics of the different grades of schools, as far as presented in the year 1887, are as follows:

b This office has no means of ascertaining discrepancy between the sum of the several items and the totals printed beneath them.

a The women's colleges providing full university education were closed by Imperial order in 1887-88. One of them has since been reopened at St. Petersburg.