decorative and aesthetic motives. It is, however, most essential to show the ways by which results have been obtained. Fourth. Exhibitions of industrial schools were mixed with those for general culture or with exhibitions of industries, hence attracted little or no attention, could not be arranged according to their peculiar needs, and lasted altogether too long. An exhibition of industrial schools, lasting from eight to ten days during vacation, will unite teachers and authorities and the general public in fruitful studies and deliberations. Fifth. The written work of a school should not be excluded, so that the connection between intellectual and manual work might be seen. Sixth. The exhibitions were repeated too frequently at first. The result was a diminished participation and waning interest. Between 1850 and 1856 these schools arranged for exhibitions every two years in Würtemberg; from 1867 to 1889 once in seven years. Seventh. Exhibitions arranged by societies did not find general favor. Smaller industrial schools could not compete with larger, better situated, and, therefore, more successful schools. This is the reason why exhibitions are best arranged by state authorities, so that all who derive subsidies from the state may be required to exhibit. Eighth. Exhibitions without a carefully laid plan and expert juries are worthless and remain mere shows. Ninth. Formerly objects were placed side by side which could not be compared. As the number of industrial schools increases it has been found best to exhibit the work of one class of schools independent of that of another.

Würtemberg held, between 1850 and 1889, nineteen exhibitions of industrial schools. The last one contained, for the first time, apprentices' work, appliances of instruction, as well as artistic productions by teachers of industrial schools. This stimulated the diligence and technical education of the teachers. Saxony exhibited in 1883 the work of 82 industrial schools of the district of Zwickau, and in 1888 that of 150 industrial schools of the whole Kingdom. Here was the work of 800 teachers and 16,000 students brought into view, and the cost amounted to only $1,500. Upon this occasion the principle was carried out, for the first time, that the course of instruction in any branch should be completely shown by its results in excellent, mediocre, and poor work. This principle was carried out also in the Swiss exhibition of continuation, trade, and drawing schools in Zürich in 1890. The Industrial Society of Hessia has arranged annual exhibitions ever since 1840, but no premiums are allowed. The authorities in Nassau collect the drawings of its 50 industrial schools and have them adjudged by an expert committee.

(12) Periodicals for industrial schools, statistics, and history.—Periodicals which give information concerning the organization, methods of instruction, and work of industrial schools are very important for teachers and directors of such schools, since they facilitate an exchange. of views, experiences, and plans. When such a periodical is published ED 91-12

by the authorities themselves, it forms the nucleus of influence which extends from the center to the most remote technical schools, and aids the work of the Government by submitting its activity to the judgment of public opinion. Austria has had such a publication since 1883, entitled the "Central Journal for Industrial Education in Austria." It is edited by the highest authority, publishes the laws, regulations, and orders pertaining to industrial education, the statistics of attendance, etc., and gives a good share of its attention and space to foreign schools. In Switzerland the federal government subsidizes several periodicals for industrial education. In return therefor the publishers distribute their papers to students and teachers of all the industrial schools supported wholly or in part by the state. In Prussia the Periodical for Industrial Education has been published since 1886, but it is the result of private enterprise, and only accomplishes what can be expected from private enterprise. The Saxon industrial schools have an organ, entitled the Industrial Review. In Würtemberg the Industrial Journal, and in Baden the Industrial Gazette are the organs.

The statistics of industrial schools, especially those of numerous private institutions, are very fragmentary. The best statistical information is found in the Saxon report of the entire system of public education, which not only gives statistics of attendance of pupils and teachers, but also information concerning those who established and maintain the schools, the time of instruction, hours per week, tuition fees, expenditures, etc., for every public and private school. This report is supplemented at intervals of four years by an official list of industrial, agricultural, and commercial schools of Saxony, which list states the name of the school, its location, its founder, the address of its principal, its object, requirements of admission, length of terms, course of study, teachers, number of pupils, tuition fees, etc. This list is furnished to all industrial schools in Germany. The facility for comparison of courses of study and other matters offered by this official list has induced many schools to make essential improvements. Prussia has recently published anextensive report on industrial education, which contains very valuable items for comparison. In Würtemberg very meager statistics are published. Baden and Bavaria issue annually brief tables of attendance. A more extended survey of the industrial schools in Baden has been published by Mr. Gasell, president of the chamber of commerce. The commissioners for industrial continuation schools in Würtemberg are receiving regularly written reports from all the industrial schools of the Kingdom, but do not publish them. The publication of a history of industrial schools, even though it be nothing but an account of such schools in a small kingdom, would be exceedingly valuable if it showed the first incentive to the establishment of industrial schools, how and when new classes were opened, how certain obstacles were overcome, what means aided in securing success, what faults were discovered, what failures were avoided or made, how the first organization changed

under the demands of modern times, and other points. Such a work would suggest improvement, give information, encourage all concerned, and preserve in a measure the experience of former years, which otherwise would be lost forever.

II. CLASSES OF SCHOOLS.

(A.) INDUSTRIAL CONTINUATION SCHOOLS.

(13) Although participation in the common continuation courses is arranged for boys of 15 to 18 years of age in most of the states of Germany, excepting Prussia (in fact, evening schools are open from two to six hours a week), and although they chiefly offer "that knowledge which is essential for civil life" (law of 1836 in Würtemberg), it can not be said. that this instruction is sufficient for the needs of the industrial classes, especially as regards drawing. It must be considered, for instance, that in Saxony, where in 1889 there were 1,912 common continuation schools with 76,000 pupils, a great many of these schools had special drawing classes for shoemakers, tailors, builders, etc.

Industrial continuation schools have a twofold aim: first, to improve and extend general knowledge in language, arithmetic, and geometry; second, to impart industrial knowledge and skill necessary to various industrial branches-as, for instance, technical drawing, industrial bookkeeping, and knowledge of business affairs. In Hessia many industrial or trade schools abandoned instruction in arithmetic, language, and geometry in 1874, but very soon after introduced it again, because the common continuation schools could not sufficiently consider these branches. Attempts at combining industrial with agricultural continuation schools miscarried, since one teacher could not do justice to both industry and agriculture. The industrial schools have been blamed for attempting to provide instruction in the most varied industries, hence could never do justice to any one of them; this is depreciating the good that may be attained in favor of something better which is absolutely unattainable.

The Austrian trade schools (for boys of 12 to 15), which are to prepare for distinct trades, are a new kind of schools which are fashioned after Parisian models. In them not only is common-school instruction given, but industrial skill is developed in wood and metal work, modeling, staining, varnishing, distilling, etc. During the third year of these schools the time is devoted to special branches for those who desire them. School workshops are arranged for apprentices who have no workshops of their own. The trade schools in Paris, after which the Austrian are fashioned, have existed since 1873.

Prussia had, in 1890, 1,131 industrial continuation schools with 93,029 students. They were poorly supervised, according to the official statement of the Government. Four hundred and fourteen of these schools had obligatory attendance of 49,325 students. This shows

that the population is not in sympathy with the movement. In central and western Prussia these schools are better supported than in the eastern provinces.

Bavaria has 242 industrial continuation schools, of which 194 are independent and 48 are connected with high schools. They are attended by 29,472 students, of whom only 2 per cent receive instruction in day, and 98 per cent in evening and Sunday schools. In 165 communities local laws prescribe obligatory attendance. Only 7,463, or 24 per cent, of the students attended technical classes, while the others pursue only common-school studies.

Saxony in 1889 had 28 industrial continuation schools (5 of which are 60 or 70 years old), but none have obligatory attendance; their total enrollment was 7,912. In Würtemberg the industrial continuation schools are most numerous in comparison with other states. Of communities with more than 2,000 inhabitants, 85 per cent had industrial continuation schools (in Baden, only 32 per cent); the enrollment in 167 communities in Würtemberg was 13,649 students. every 100 apprentices, 71 attended such schools. It is most interesting to see what studies these students chiefly pursued: Freehand drawing, 7,397; arithmetic, 6,772; technical drawing, 6,346; business composition, 6,089; geometrical construction, 4,531; penmanship 2,921.

Baden in 1889 had 43 industrial schools, with 549 students in preparatory classes, 5,366 regular and 1,907 special students.

Hessia had, in 1886, 73 trade schools in 64 communities, with 4,400 students, to which must be added 7 extended trade schools, of which 2 are connected with industrial art schools; these 2 are day schools.

Austria in 1890 had 14 industrial continuation schools, with 3,474 students connected with state industrial schools. Besides, Austria had 393 independent continuation schools, with 61,567 students (132 schools in lower Austria, 154 in Bohemia, and 107 in the other eleven Crown lands). To these may be added 1,077 students in continuation courses offered by 8 trade schools.

Switzerland in 1890 had 90 industrial continuation schools, trades schools, and drawing schools, 15 of the latter in the canton of Tessin. The most important of these schools are in Geneva, Zurich, St. Gall, Bern, Solothurn, and Aargau.

(14) Drawing halls.-For industrial schools drawing is the most important branch of instruction. Diderot remarked: "une nation, où l'on apprendrait à dessiner, comme on apprend à écrire, l'emporterait bientôt sur les autres dans tous les arts du goût." Instruction in drawing which develops the sense of form, artistic taste, and skill of the hand is a supplement to general education acquired by means of the printed page. It promotes acute observation and strengthens the sense which has been dulled by literary work, and is therefore justly an obligatory study in common schools. It has been suggested to establish open drawing halls with teachers who, by living in adjoining rooms, would

be at the disposal of the student all day. Such halls, it is urged, would even assist adults very materially, and aid in bringing school and trade into closer connection. In southern Germany and Austria such open drawing schools have been established, but they were soon afterward brought into connection with established schools.

(B) INDUSTRIAL INSTITUTIONS FOR WOMEN.

(15) These institutions are distinguished from other industrial schools by offering instruction not only in modeling and drawing, indus trial arithmetic, bookkeeping, letter-writing, but also in woman's handiwork, embroidery, and articles of industrial art.

Bavaria has 26 such schools, with 2,252 students; Saxony 11, with 1,081 students; Würtemberg 14, with 720 students, besides 19 woman's work schools, with 4,511 students. The oldest of these institutions, established in 1868 in Reutlingen, had up to 1889 prepared 269 teachers for industrial and woman's work schools.

Baden has 16 trade and work schools for women, with 1,110 students. Besides these the Woman's Society in Baden maintains 9 such schools, with 1,231 students. Hessia has also several woman's schools for industrial pursuits in five cities.

(C) LOWER INDUSTRIAL OR TRADE SCHOOLS.

(16) Trade schools are to be distinguished from industrial continuation schools. The latter serve all or many trades or industries; the former only one, such as the builder's, weaver's, shoemaker's, tinner's turner's, joiner's trade, etc., and though they combine academic studies with manual work, they need constant and close contact with the workshop and factory. The most suitable location for trade schools is at the center of activity of the particular industrial branch they are to serve. Among the requirements for admission into a trade school the essentials are, as a rule, familiarity with the tools of the particular trade, skill in performing simple work, and knowledge of the requisite materials used. According to the regulations of the central commission, which supervises the trade schools of Austria, the establishment of such schools is advisable only "where the existence of industrial life is clearly shown, and where its extent is so large, its capacity for development so undoubted, and its technical character so pronounced, that the particular branch which a school may represent is plainly evident."

The oldest and most numerous trade schools are the weaving schools (in Saxony since 1830, in Bavaria since 1854, in Würtemberg since 1855). They have served the weaving trade admirably, especially at times when the ever-changing fashion preferred certain textures to others, or when under the presence of competition the handlooms gave way to power looms, when again, certain finer textures could not be done on power looms, and handlooms had to be used; when new or