discussion. Successful opposition to Christianity could only be offered by a spiritualizing of the polytheistic religion which would conceal its grossness and soften the contrast between the popular superstitions and the pure doctrines by which they were being undermined and supplanted. This antagonistic system is known as the later Neo-Platonism. Its struggles with Christianity and its utter defeat form an interesting episode in Church history which it is beyond our scope to describe.

If then we allow that there is token of immediate

connection between the Jewish-Alexandrian philosophy and the early Fathers, and if we concede that the attempt to conciliate philosophy and religion led the way to that new phase of doctrine which was so bitterly hostile to Christianity, we have shown that we dissent heartily and altogether from the opinion that any prominent doctrines of Christianity are derived from any alien sources, and we can see no ground for such opinion but certain verbal similarities which are capable of another and more reasonable explanation.

THE Book which we are about to consider has generally gone by the name of The Wisdom of Solomon. It is so entitled in the earliest Manuscripts. Thus the Sinaitic Codex calls it Ɛopia Eaλoμwvros, the Vatican Zopia Eaλwuwv, and the Alexandrian Ɛopia Ɛoλoμovтos: the early translations have usually given it the like appellation, the Syriac terming it 'The Book of the Great Wisdom of Solomon,' and the Arabic 'The Book of the Wisdom of Solomon, the son of David.' But by many of the Greek Fathers, and by Western writers since the time of SS. Jerome and Augustine, the name of Solomon has been dropped. Epiphanius and Athanasius cite it under the designation of Havápeтos Eopía, 'All-virtuous Wisdom,' a title also applied to Proverbs and Ecclesiasticus. Clement of Alexandria and Origen called it 'H eía Eopia. The 2 Latin Vulgate prefixes the title 'Liber Sapientiae,' and

Augustine names it 'Liber Christianae Sapientiae,' and says it is improperly termed Solomon's. That it had no claim to be considered a production of the royal author whose name it bore was generally felt, though some few writers in uncritical times maintained the contrary. Jerome, in his preface to the Books of Solomon, says: Fertur et Panaeretos Jesu Filii Sirach liber, et alius pseud-epigraphus, qui Sapientia Salomonis inscribitur,' intending probably by this epithet to shew merely that in his judgment it was wrongly attributed to King Solomon. Elsewhere he refers to it as 'The Wisdom that is ascribed to Solomon, if any one thinks proper to receive the Book.' Augustine in his Retractations remarks: Salomonis duo hi libri a pluribus adpellantur propter quamdam, sicut existimo, eloquii similitudinem. Nam Salomonis non esse nihil dubitant quique doctiores.' That the

author assumes the name of Solomon is of course apparent. Such a use of fiction has been common in all ages without any suspicion of fraud being attached to the writer. Plato and Cicero in their Dialogues introduce real characters as vehicles for supporting or opposing their own views. If it could be proved that any of the Psalms ascribed to David were written after his time, we might reasonably suppose that they had his name prefixed to them, as being composed in his spirit or in that form of sacred poetry employed by him. So all the Sapiential Books, though some of them were confessedly of much later date, were commonly attributed to Solomon, as being himself the ideal of the personification of Wisdom and the author par excellence of works on this subject. And when the writer introduces Solomon himself speaking, this is not done with any intention of leading his readers to believe that the work was a genuine production of the Son of David. Written, as we shall see, at a period many centuries removed from the palmy days of Israel, at a place far distant from Jerusalem, in a language and style unfamiliar to the Hebrew king, the Book could never have claimed for itself the authority of that royal name except by a fiction universally understood and allowed. An analogous use of fiction is found in the Books of Tobit and Judith, where under circumstances professedly historical, but which in many particulars do violence to history, moral and political truths are forcibly enunciated. There is this further reason for the use of the name of Solomon in the title of the Book, namely, that many of the sentiments and much of the language found therein are derived from the genuine works of the royal author, as will be seen in the Commentary.

See Liddon, Bampton Lectures, ii. pp. 89-95, ed. 1867. Christ is stated, according to His earthly nature, to be "the firstborn of every creature"; a passage which bears out the opinion of S. Athanasius [Orat. II Contr. Arian. 47], that the reference to the creation of Wisdom in the Book of Proverbs is designed, among other things, to set forth the Incarnation of our Lord, as the head and pattern of humanity. S. Athanasius, following the Septuagint [Κύριος ἔκτισέ με ἀρχὴν ὁδῶν αὐτοῦ εἰς ἔργα αὐτοῦ],

The plan and contents of the Book have next to be considered. And first we must ask, What is meant by Wisdom (opia) of which it treats? Dismissing from our minds later definitions of the term, and taking our stand on the Old Testament Scriptures, we see that it is used chiefly in two pregnant senses. First, it signifies that quality, so named, which is an attribute of the Godhead, or the thought of God which has its expression in the Logos, the Son; secondly, it denotes the habit of mind infused in angels and men by God Himself, and the rules and dictates of religion and practical godliness. In the latter sense it is equivalent to what is elsewhere called the knowledge of God, a term which includes the high contemplation of glorified saints and angels, as well as the religious culture and practice of devout men on earth. As to the Divine Wisdom, this originally resides in God. As Job says (xii. 13), 'with Him are Wisdom and strength;''God understandeth the ways thereof, and He knoweth its place' (xxviii. 23). And then more definitely in the Book of Proverbs it is said of Wisdom: The Lord possessed me in the beginning of His way, before his works of old. I was set up from everlasting, from the beginning or ever the earth was. I was by Him, as one brought up with Him, and I was daily His delight, rejoicing always before Him' (ch. viii). Though we do not here see Wisdom actually distinguished as a Person of the Godhead, yet it is shown as more than a mere abstraction or poetical personification; it is shown at least as uncreated and as coeternal with God. Thus much we may gather from the canonical Scriptures of the Old Testament1. In the Book of Ecclesiasticus a further advance is made. Wisdom comes from the Lord and is with Him for ever' (i. 1); She is indeed said to be and expressing the Hebrew with more exactness than is done in our translation, renders Prov. viii. 22, "The Lord created me a beginning of His ways," which is equivalent, he observes, to the assertion that the Father prepared me a body, and He created me for man, on behalf of their salvation.' Wilberforce, Incarnat. chap. ii. pp. 24, 25. ed. 1852. The Revised Bible translates, 'The Lord possessed [or, prepared, marg.] me in the beginning of His way.'

created, 'created before all things' (i. 4), but she is also said to be 'poured out upon all God's works' (ver. 9), and never to fail' (xxiv. 9), 'but to have her habitation in Jacob, and to take root in the inheritance of the Lord' (ib. 8, and 12). And thus we are led on to the doctrine of the Logos, the expression of the thought of God, and the manifestation of Wisdom among mankind and in all creation. In the Book of Wisdom this idea has become more definite and precise. The nature and sphere and operation of Wisdom are clearly stated. She is the breath of the power of God and a pure influence flowing from the glory of the Almighty, the brightness of the everlasting light, the unspotted mirror of the power of God, and the image of His goodness. Being One she can do all things, remaining immutable herself she maketh all things new, and in all ages entering into holy souls she maketh them friends of God and prophets. She is privy to the mysteries of God, sits by His throne, loves His works, was present when He formed the world, and gives to men all the virtues which they need in every station and condition of life 1.

As regards Wisdom in its human aspect we may say generally that, as used in the Sapiential Books, the term expresses the perfection of knowledge showing itself in action, whether in the case of king or peasant, statesman or artisan, philosopher or unlearned. Its contradictory is Folly (avoia), which signifies all wilful ignorance, sinfulness and carelessness, every act and habit opposed to the love of God and the practice of holiness. Professor Huxley remarks in one of his essays: The only medicine for suffering, crime, and

1 Wisd. vii, viii, ix; Vacherot, i. pp. 134, 135; Dähne, pp. 154, ff.; Gfrörer, Philo, i. pp. 243, ff.; ii. pp. 216, ff.

2 Thus, chap. i. 4-6: 'Into a malicious soul wisdom shall not enter, nor dwell in the body that is subject to sin. For the holy spirit of discipline will flee deceit, and remove from thoughts that are without understanding. Wisdom is a loving spirit.' For the Spirit of the Lord filleth the world; and that which containeth all things hath knowledge of the voice,' ver. 7. Compare also ix. 17. Here Wisdom is identified with the Holy Spirit. In the following passages it assumes the character of the Word:

all the other woes of mankind, is Wisdom.' And though his notion of wisdom is very different from that of him who is called 'Pseudo-Solomon,' and involves no principle of divine revelation, yet taken as it stand the statement contains a great truth. The habit of making a right choice, of using aright the knowledge and powers given, is enforced alike by the Jewish teacher and the modern philosopher. That gift of God the Holy Spirit which is called Wisdom directs men to seek God as the end and object of their life and faculties, to give themselves up to His guiding hand, to know and to do His will. The Jew was not a speculative philosopher; he did not employ his mind on abstruse theories concerning the mutual connection and interdependence of nature and spirit. Abstract investigation had little charm for him. All his views were based on revealed truths; it was from reflection on past revelations that his literature arose. Thus with him Wisdom embraces what a Greek would call virtue, a habit of choosing the good and excellent way; but it comprises also the notion of a deep knowledge, an appropriation of the history of God's dealings with His people, and a thorough trust in the divine aid which is never refused to the prayer of the faithful.

In the Book before us Divine Wisdom is presented under two aspects: sometimes as the Spirit, sometimes as the Word of God, different operations being attributed to each 2. As the Spirit of God, Wisdom fills the world, is the means by which the Divine omnipresence is effectuated and expressed, and inspires men to be prophets; as the Word of God, Wisdom made the world, and is the executor of God's commands both

vii. 22, Wisdom, which is the worker of all things, taught me;' xviii. 15, 'Thine Almighty word leaped down from heaven out of Thy royal throne, as a fierce man of war . . . and brought Thine unfeigned commandment;' ix. 1, 2, 'O God of my fathers, Who hast made all things with Thy Word, and ordained man through Thy Wisdom.' In Philo also the conception of Wisdom is not consistent or uniform. Some passages expressly identify the Logos and Wisdom; elsewhere Wisdom is represented as the spouse of God, and again as the mother of the Logos.

2

in the reward and punishment of His creatures. By personifying Wisdom in the former view the author prepares the way in a most remarkable manner for the full doctrine of the Personality of the Holy Ghost, which was not plainly revealed till later times; and by his personification of the Word he adumbrates the true Christian doctrine expressed by S. John.

Human Wisdom is portrayed as that gift of God to men which is the guide and aim of all good conduct in life, and which leads to a happy immortality. This gift contains all virtues, moral, physical, and intellectual, holy living, manual dexterity, cultivated understanding. In developing this principle the author is in advance of many of the books of the Old Testament in regard to the Providence of God, the immortality of the soul, and the future judgment, thus lighting the way to the full knowledge of Christianity. Incidentally, or it may be formally, he refutes the pernicious doctrines of Epicureans and materialists; he shews the superiority of the Hebrew religion to heathen philosophy in its purity and strictness, in its faith in a future life, in its trust in Divine Providence, and tacitly confutes many of those arguments alleged by Pagans both then and afterwards against Hebraism. And, further, as in the inspiration of his genius, and fired by the majesty of his subject, a poet is often led to give utterance to thoughts which have a meaning and a fulness far beyond anything that he intended, so the author of the Book of Wisdom, if not directly inspired by God as were the writers of the earlier Scriptures, has exhibited a deep knowledge of divine things, and a forward reach into mysteries still unrevealed, which seem greater than have been elsewhere displayed beyond the limits of Scripture. Those magnificent encomiums of Wisdom wherein our Book abounds seem to illustrate and glorify Him Who is the Wisdom of God. Nothing can be more appropriate to Christ than the grand personification of this attribute of Deity. In such passages as the following the writer seems to

have been guided beyond his own thought to indicate the operations and attributes of the second Person of the Holy Trinity. O God of my fathers, and Lord of mercy, Who hast made all things by Thy Word' (ix. 1).

For it was neither herb, nor mollifying plaister that restored them [the people bitten by fiery serpents] to health; but Thy Word, O Lord, which healeth all things.' 'That Thy children, O Lord, whom Thou lovest, might know that it is not the growing of fruits that nourisheth man; but that it is Thy Word which preserveth them that put their trust in Thee' (xvi. 12, 26). 'While all things were in quiet silence, and night was in the midst of her swift course, Thine Almighty Word leaped down from heaven out of Thy royal throne, as a fierce man of war in the midst of a land of destruction, and brought Thine unfeigned commandment as a sharp sword' (xviii. 14-16). As regards the second passage here quoted, our Lord Himself has explained the allegorical import of the 'serpent lifted up in the wilderness.' The last passage has for ages been applied by the Latin Church to the Incarnation, and is interwoven into her offices for Christmas and Epiphany. And once more, that language which the author puts into the mouth of the wicked persecuting the righteous is more true of the mockery heaped upon the Saviour as He hung upon the Cross1. He professeth to have the knowledge of God, and he calleth himself the child of God... He maketh his boast that God is his Father. Let us see if his words be true: shall happen in the end of him. be the Son of God, He will help from the hand of his enemies.'

and let us prove what For if the just man him, and deliver him

The Book itself may be broadly divided into two parts, the first nine chapters treating of Wisdom under its more speculative aspect, exhorting men to strive after it, and describing its origin, and its moral and intellectual effects; the last ten chapters being confined to the historical view, showing how Wisdom has displayed its power in the lives of the Fathers and in its

dealings with the Israelites in connection with Egypt. Herein incidentally are answered many of the heathen cavils against Hebraism; and that problem which Job found impossible to explain, the difficulties which occur to any one who reflects upon the moral government of the world, is in a measure resolved, and the faithful believers are comforted with the assurance that

--

although they suffer here and the wicked prosper, yet a day of retribution is at hand, and in another life all shall be adjusted and rectified, a fact, the truth of which, as regards individuals, may be inferred from God's dealings with nations which have no future, but are rewarded and punished in this world.

THE language and style of the Book are very remarkable. Compared with the Septuagint version of the canonical Scriptures, it is seen at once to be no mere translation from the Hebrew, but an original work of high character and of marked peculiarity. S. Jerome was quite justified in the opinion expressed in his Preface to the Books of Solomon: 'Secundus apud Hebraeos nusquam est, quin et ipse stylus Graecam eloquentiam redolet.' It is indeed written in the purest form of Alexandrian Greek, free from the Hebraisms and anomalies of the Septuagint, and full of passages which combine the richest vocabulary with genuine rhetorical eloquence. The originality of the work is seen in many particulars. We may remark the many unusual compound words and novel and combined expressions with which it abounds; such are, кakóμоxeos (xv. 8); ὑπέρμαχος (xvi. 17); ἀκηλίδωτος (iv. 9); ἀναποδισμός (ii. 5); eidéxbeta (xvi. 3); yeveσtápxns (xiii. 3); evðpáveta (xiii. 19) ; νηπιοκτόνος (xi. 7); βραχντελής (xv. 9). Many expressions in this Book have become, as it were, household words among us, others exhibit a remarkable felicity which has given them a general currency.

1 Forgetting this, Wilberforce writes (Doctr. of Incarnat. chap. iii. p. 49, ed. 1852): 'Wherein did the Protoplast, as Bishop Bull calls him, after S. Irenaeus, differ from us all?' as

Mediaeval illuminations on the walls of Churches or in devotional manuals show how deeply the heart of the religious had imbibed the notion that the souls of the righteous are in the hand of God' (iii. 1). Materialistic and rude as such representations may seem to modern eyes, they preach a great truth which is clearly set forth in Wisdom. Many a man quotes or hears the words 'a hope full of immortality' (iii. 4) without knowing the source of this noble expression. They are Thine, O Lord, Thou Lover of souls,' déoroтa piλóYuxe (xi. 26). Here is an old term with a new and beautiful sense affixed to it, the classical notion of 'loving life too well,' and hence of being cowardly, being elevated into an attribute of Almighty God Who hateth nothing that He hath made. Modern science is fond of talking about Protoplasm and the Protoplast, little imagining that it is indebted to Wisdom for the word : 'I myself am a mortal man. . . the offspring of him that was first made of the earth, γηγενοῦς ἀπόγονος πρωTOпλáσTOυ (viii. 1; x. 1). That saying of our Lord, 'Whoso committeth sin is the servant of sin,' and still more that of S. Paul, 'We are debtors not to the flesh

though the latter were the originator of the expression in its application to Adam.