Ulrich Zwingli and the Reforma Reformation in Switzerland. He was a classically-educated priest, of republican principles. As Canon of Zurich he exerted himself zealously against the doctrine of indulgences, as preached by Samson, a FranSwitzer- ciscan monk. He labored against all kinds of abuses, and against land. the Swiss custom of engaging as mercenaries in foreign military tion in Reforms. service. Zwingli's Ulrich Zwingli was a man of practical understanding, without Luther's depth of mind or disposition, and did not concern himself with the reform of doctrine or creed, but with the improvement of life and morals. He engaged in the Reformation with little ceremony, as he desired to restore primitive Christianity in its simplest form. As he was agreed with the Chief Council of Zurich, he set about a thorough reform of ecclesiastical doctrine and practice; banished all images, crosses, candles, altars and organs from the churches; and administered the Lord's Supper after the manner of the early Christian love-feasts, the communicants receiving the bread and wine while sitting. His Con troversy with Luther about Transubstantia tion. Catholic estant Cantons. Zwingli engaged in an irreconcilable controversy with Luther concerning transubstantiation. Zwingli recognized nothing but a token of remembrance and fellowship in that ceremony, and explained the words "this is my body" as meaning "this represents my body." Luther would not receive these words in such a sense, but maintained that Christ's blood and body were present in the bread and wine administered in the holy sacrament. The Landgrave Philip of Hesse sought to effect a reconciliation between the two sincere Reformers by means of a disputation between them at Marburg. Luther considered Zwingli's view a denial of Christ, and when Zwingli offered his brotherly hand with tears Luther drew back his own hand, thus refusing to receive the noble-hearted Zwingli as a brother. As Luther opposed any union with those German towns which had adopted Zwingli's doctrines, those towns presented their own confession of faith to the Diet of Augsburg. Zwingli's appearance in Switzerland was followed by disturbances and Prot- similar to those which followed Luther's appearance in Germany. The Church was reformed according to Zwingli's principles in Zurich, Basle, Berne, Schaffhausen, the Rhinethal and other cantons. The Catholics contended with the Zwinglians in Appenzell, the Grisons, St. Gall, Glarus and other cantons. In Zug, and in the four forest cantons -Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden and Lucerne the Catholic faith mair.tained its ascendency, because of the influence of the monks and clergy over the simple populace, and because the custom of engaging in foreign military service, which formed the chief means of support among these people, was opposed by the Reformers. erland. The five Catholic cantons concluded an alliance with Austria, and Agitation in Switzvigorously and sternly suppressed every innovation; while Berne and Zurich aided the Reformation in the frontier towns with bigoted zeal and violence. In this agitated condition of Switzerland a civil and religious war was inevitable, especially as Zwingli meditated such a revolution as would give the political supremacy in the Republic to the two most powerful cantons, Berne and Zurich. Mutual revilings of the clergy, which proceeded with perfect immunity from punishment, increased the public irritation and provoked hostilities. Berne and Zurich blockaded the public roads, thus preventing the transportation of goods and the necessaries of life- -a proceeding which exasperated the Catholic cantons. The Catholics made secret preparations and attacked the people of Zurich unawares. The Zurichers, surprised and irresolute, and forsaken by the Bernese, sent a force of two thousand men against double that number of Catholics, but were totally defeated in the bloody battle of Kappel, in 1531, in which Zwingli was slain. The brave Zwingli had accompanied his followers as field preacher, and fell beside the banner of the city; and along with him perished the staunchest friends of the Reformation in Switzerland. His dead body was subjected to the insults of his indignant foes, after which it was burned and the ashes scattered to the winds. The Catholic triumph restored the Roman Church in many places in Switzerland that had seemed to favor the Reformation, thus producing the religious divisions that have prevailed in the Swiss Republic ever since. Civil War of Religion in Switz erland. Battle of Death of Catholic Victory. SECTION IV.-EMPEROR CHARLES V. AND WAR OF RE LIGION IN GERMANY (A. D. 1531-1558). Schmalkald. As the Emperor Charles V., after the Peace of Cambray, in 1529, League of seemed determined to suppress the religious Reformation in his dominions, the Protestant princes of Germany, with the Elector of Saxony and the Landgrave of Hesse at their head, united in 1531 for their own. protection, and formed an alliance, known as the League of Schmalkald, which was joined by the Kings of England, France, Denmark and Sweden. Effect of the Turkish The Emperor of Germany was obliged to avoid hostilities with his Protestant subjects at this time, in consequence of the formidable invasions of the Austrian territories by the Turks, who were then the Invasions. most powerful people in Europe. Thus these constant Turkish invasions were highly favorable to the cause of the Reformation, as the Protestants of Germany refused to assist the Emperor in driving back Peace of Nuremberg. Duke Ulrich of berg. the Turks, so long as the sword of Catholic vengeance was raised over their heads. The plans of Charles V. for the extermination of heresy were thus frustrated, and he found himself obliged to conclude with the League of Schmalkald the Peace of Nuremberg, in 1532, thus postponing the civil war of religion in Germany for fourteen years. The Peace of Nuremberg, which was confirmed by the German imperial Diet at Ratisbon, granted full liberty to preach and publish the doctrines of the Augsburg Confession. By this treaty both parties. agreed to refrain from hostilities until a Council of the Church should be assembled to settle the division which thus distracted Christendom. Pope Clement VII. had been vehemently urged to convene such a Council. In the meantime the law proceedings were to cease. While the treaty bound the Protestants, it gave them no assurance for the future; but it afforded great opportunities for the diffusion of the Gospel throughout every portion of Germany. The Lutheran form of worship was introduced into the Duchy of Wurtem- Wurtemberg. Duke Ulrich of Wurtemberg, a hot-tempered and cruel prince, had with his own hand murdered Hans von Hutten, a knight of his court, from motives of jealousy. He had so ill treated his wife that she fled from him, and he had conquered the imperial city of Reutlingen. He was at length outlawed for disturbing the peace of the country, and was driven from his land and his vassals by the Suabian League. Lutheranism in berg. The Ana For fourteen years Ulrich was forced to lead a wandering life in exile from his dukedom, which meanwhile came under the dominion of Austria. At length the Landgrave Philip of Hesse resolved to restore Wurtemberg to its exiled duke, who was then living at his court. Philip accordingly led a well-equipped army into Suabia, defeated the Austrian governor at Laufen, on the Neckar, and reëstablished Ulrich in the government of his duchy. Ulrich was joyfully welcomed by his subjects, who had forgotten his former tyranny, and who were easily induced to accept the Lutheran doctrines, which Ulrich had embraced during his exile, and which he now caused to be disseminated by Brenz and Schnepf. The Lutheran Church was firmly established in the Duchy of Wurtemberg, and the University of Tübingen was one of the most celebrated Lutheran seats of learning. As we have seen, there were extremists in the new Church. Thomas baptists. Münzer's death had not suppressed the doctrines of the Anabaptists, who regarded their own passions as divine inspirations. In spite of the opposition of the leaders of the Reformation, and the discouragement given by all the lawful magistrates, the Anabaptists would make their appearance at various places in Germany. These fanatical doctrines displayed themselves in the most formidable manner in Münster, where the Reformation had made violent headway and driven the bishop and canons into exile. It was soon apparent that Rottman, an influential preacher of the Reformation at Münster, was infected with Anabaptist ideas. He was at length aided by Jan Matthys and his countryman and disciple, the tailor, John Bockhold, called John of Leyden; whereupon the Anabaptists acquired such ascendency at Münster that they soon had possession of all the city offices, drove all such of the inhabitants as refused to accept their doctrines out of the city in the midst of winter, and divided their property among themselves. They then established a religious commonwealth in which Jan Matthys had absolute power, introduced the communistic plan of a community of goods, and defended the city against the besieging force of the Bishop of Münster. The fanaticism of the Anabaptists of Münster was heightened when Jan Matthys lost his life in a sally against the besiegers, when John of Leyden was placed at the head of the new commonwealth. John of Leyden selected twelve elders from the most violent of the fanatics, and entrusted them with the government of the city of Münster. Among these, Knipperdoling, who was burgomaster and executioner, acted the most conspicuous part. He introduced the practice of polygamy, and put to death without mercy all who denounced this outrage on Christian morality. When the fanaticism of the Anabaptists of Münster had reached its height, John of Leyden assumed the title of "King of the New Israel," which he claimed by Divine inspiration. This "tailor king had for his insignia a crown and a globe suspended by a golden chain. With this insignia, and magnificently attired, he set up the “Chair of David" in the market-place of Münster, where he sat for the administration of justice. He introduced a government in which tyranny and fanaticism were mingled, and in which spiritual pride and carnal lust were associated in the most repulsive manner. Overthrow of the tists. The Anabaptists for a long time made a courageous and successful resistance to the attacks of their imperfectly-armed foes. They still resolutely maintained their defense when the besieging army of the AnabapBishop of Münster had been reinforced by imperial troops, and when the beleaguered city began to suffer the horrors of famine. They resisted with the courage of desperation even when the enemy were within the walls of the city. Rottman was slain while fighting. John of Leyden and Knipperdoling were put to death by torture, and their dead bodies were suspended in iron cages on the tower; while many were executed, and the rest were driven into exile. The bishop, the canons and the nobility returned; and Roman Catholicism, which was then reëstablished in all its rigor, has ever since prevailed in Münster. Menno and the Mennonites. Protest Princes of A few decades later the Anabaptists experienced a complete reformation of their doctrines and discipline under the direction and leadership of Menno Simon; and in that condition, under the name of Mennonites, they have continued to the present day, and have been distinguished for their simplicity of dress and manners, and for their rejection of a separate priesthood, of infant baptism, of oaths, of military service and the use of law. Under Menno Simon's direction they abandoned those principles of an earlier period which were in direct antagonism to Christian morality and the public welfare. In their old ancestral homes their descendants lead a quiet life as tenant farmers and peasants. Many are now living in the United States of America. We have seen that the leading Protestant princes of Germany were ant the Elector John the Steadfast of Saxony and the Landgrave Philip Germany. of Hesse. The Elector John the Steadfast, who succeeded his father Frederick the Wise in 1525, died in 1532, and was succeeded by his son John Frederick. The Duke of Cleves was also one of the greatest of the Protestant princes of Germany; and inherited Guelders and Zutphen, in the Netherlands, through the extinction of the family of Egmont, as well as his father's duchy of Cleves and his mother's inheritance of Berg, Jülich and Ravensberg. His estates lay along the Rhine, from Cologne, in Germany, to the vicinity of Utrecht, in the Netherlands, and from the Werre to the Meuse. At length Lutheranism was established in the Duchy of Saxony and in the Electorate of Brandenburg, after the death of their last Catholic princes. Lutheranism in Branden burg. Luther the Two The Margrave Albert of Brandenburg had become a Lutheran in the early part of the Reformation; but the Electoral branch of the Brandenburg House of Hohenzollern held fast to Roman Catholicism unti after the death of the Elector Joachim I., in 1535. His son and successor, Joachim II., received the Eucharist under both Catholic and Lutheran forms at Spandau in 1539; whereupon the Electorate of Brandenburg embraced the Lutheran doctrine. The Electorate of Saxony, under the elder, or Ernestine branch of anism in the Saxon dynasty, had been the birthplace and early stronghold of the Reformation; but the Duchy of Saxony, under the younger, or Albertine branch of the same dynasty, had adhered to the Roman Church until after the death of Duke George, in 1539. His brother and successor, Henry the Pious, who was devoted to the Reformation, as was also his son Maurice, established the Lutheran worship in Meissen, Dresden and Leipsic. Protestantism in the The conversion of the Duchy of Saxony and the Electorate of Brandenburg to the Lutheran faith sealed the fate of the Roman North of Catholic Church in the whole North of Germany, and the Protestant Germany. worship now prevailed from the Rhine to the Baltic. Conferences |